CIVIL 
GOVERNMENT 



REINSCH 




WITH 

OKLAHOMA 

HISTORY AND 

CIVICS 



ROBERTS 




Class 

Book _.__ 

Copyright N° 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




EARLY OKLAHOMA CITIZENS 



THE 

ESSENTIAL FACTS 



OF 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 
AND CIVICS 



BY 



CHARLES H. ROBERTS 

1) 

FORMERLY HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY 

CENTRAL STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 

EDMOND, OKLAHOMA 



ov TToA-A' dXAa iroXv 



BENJ. H. SANBORN & CO. 

CHICAGO NEW YORK BOSTON 

1914 






Copyright, 1914, 

BY 

CHARLES H. ROBERTS. 



yV^/-^^^? 



Nortaooti ^rrss 
Set up and electiotyped by J. S. Cushing Co., Norwood, Mass. 

m I 1914 

©CUStCJISl 



INTRODUCTION 

The study of history should be one of the 
most interesting subjects that a child takes up 
in school work. Every one likes to know w^iat 
other people have done, provided they have done 
something of importance. It has been the pur- 
pose of the author of this brief history to arrange 
the subject matter so as to hold the interest of 
the children, and awaken in them a desire to 
know more about the story of their own state. 
The subject has been treated topically. The 
important facts concerning each topic have been 
brought together in a w^ay to give the child a 
clear and connected idea of what he has studied. 
The aim of the author has been to arrange the 
topics in a natural order and so connect them 
as to make a complete whole. Disconnected 
facts arranged chronologically usually cause 
confusion in the mind of the child. It has 
been the earnest desire of the author to avoid 
such confusion, hoping that the child may be 



iv INTRODUCTION 

able to form a clear, complete picture of the 
entire story. 

The history of Oklahoma is unlike that of 
any other state. At first, it was set apart for 
Indians, and many Indians of a high type were 
brought within its borders. Later it was opened 
to the whites in a way to secure almost an equal 
proportion of the best blood of the North and 
South. Oklahoma should be a worthy state. 
Its coming citizens, the children, should be glad 
to know its wonderful story and should be in- 
spired by it to be worthy citizens. It is hoped 
that this brief account of its past may help to 
develop such inspiration. 

Every citizen should be interested in the gov- 
ernment of his own state and should know how 
local affairs are managed. In the civics study 
included in this work, the aim has been to pre- 
sent a brief yet clear and complete outline of 
the government of Oklahoma, that the children 
may be prepared for a better understanding of 
the subject later. 

CHARLES H. ROBERTS. 

Edmond, Oklahoma. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 

LESSON PAGE 

1. Span*ish Explorations 1 

2. French Explorations 9 

3. Amp:rican Explorations 13 

4. Ownership of Oklahoma 18 

PERIOD OF REMOVAL OF FIVE CIVILIZED 
TRIBES 

5. Removal of the Cherokees 24 

6. Removal of the Cherokees {Concluded) . . 28 

7. Removal of the Creeks ^ " 32 

8. Removal of the Choctaws and Chickasaws . 34 

9. Removal of the Seminoles 37 

PERIOD OF CIVIL WAR IN INDIAN 
TERRITORY 

10. Civilized Tribes join the Confederacy . , 41 

11. Events of 1801 and 1862 . . . . .44 

12. Events of 1863 and 1864 ..... 49 

13. End of the War 52 

PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 

14. Terms of the Treaties 56 

15. Railroads enter Indian Territory ... 59 



vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 

LESSON PAGE 

16. Attempt to form a Territorial Government . 62 

17. Locating Other Tribes 65 

18. Locating Other Tribes {Concluded) ... 69 

19. Trouble with the Plains Indians ... 73 

PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT BY WHITES 

20. Conditions befoIre Settlejvient .... 78 

21. The First Opening .82 

22. The First Addition 88 

23. Iowa, Sac and Fox, and Pottawatomie Opening 92 

24. Cheyenne and Arapahoe Country ... 95 

25. Opening of the Cherokee Outlet ... 98 

26. The Kickapoo Country and Greer County . 104 

27. The Kiowa and Comanche Opening . . . 107 

28. Big Pasture and Other Additions . . . Ill 

PERIOD OF TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT 

29. Classes of Territories 116 

30. Tribal Government 119 

31. Dawes Commission and Curtis Act . . . 125 

32. Oklahoma Organized 129 

33. Under Territorial Government .... 132 

34. The Struggle for Statehood .... 137 



PERIOD OF STATEHOOD 

35. The Forty-sixth State . . . . . . 144 

36. Inauguration of State Government . . . 148 

37. Under State Government 151 

38. Industries of the State ..... 156 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Vll 



LESSON 

39. Development of the State 



PAGE 

159 



40. Education 164 



OKLx\HOMA CIVICS 



1. Introduction ..... 






171 


2. The School District 






174 


3. Municipal Township 






178 


4. Incorporated Towns 






181 


5. Cities 






184 


6. The County ..... 






188 


7. Government of the State . 






193 


8. Bill of Rights ..... 






195 


9. Legislative Department 






198 


10. Initiative and Referendum . 






201 


11. Executive Department . 






204 


12. P^XKCUTivE Department {Concluded) 






209 


13. Judicial Department 






213 


14. Elections 






217 


15. Taxation ...... 






220 



APPENDIX A 
Territorial Officers . . . . 
Population of Five Civilized Tribes 

Area of Openings 

First State Officers . . . . 



225 
225 
226 
226 



APPENDIX B 
State Officers .... 
Congressional Districts 



228 
231 



viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

APPENDIX C 

LESSON PAOE 

State Institutions 233 

Population 234 

Ten Largest Cities 234 

Schools under Church Control 235 

Books of Reference 235 

INDEX .,,.,„. o .. 237 



THE ESSENTIAL FACTS OF 
OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 



LESSON 1 

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 

The discoveries of Columbus not only gave 
Spain a claim on the New World, but they aroused 
the spirit of adventure and the lust for gold, traits 
which were exceptionally strong in the Spanish 
people. 

In 15L3 Balboa, in search for gold, discovered 
the Pacific Ocean and laid claim to all the lands 
touched by it. He claimed these undiscovered 
lands in the name of the king of Spain. 

The same year (1513) Ponce de Leon, ingTo^thr ' 
in search for youth and fame, dis- 1\^?°/^^^ °^ 

, '^ ^ Oklahoma 

covered Florida. 

Magellan, from 1519 to 1521, sailed on the 
Pacific Ocean, thereby giving Spain a better 

1 



2 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

right to the lands washed by its waters. While 
Magellan was making his famous voyage, Cortez 
was conquering Mexico and robbing the Aztecs. 

The success of Cortez caused De Narvaez to 
undertake the conquest of Florida. In 1528 he 
landed at Tampa Ba}^ and pushed northward, 
then westward, but failing to find gold, and meet- 
ing with many difficulties, he turned toward the 
south and reached the Gulf of Mexico, not far 
from Mobile Bay. There he built some rude 
vessels and started for Mexico. The vessels 
were wrecked by a storm near the coast of Louisi- 
ana or Texas, and all the memlDers of the expedi- 
tion were drowned, except four men, De Vaca 
and three others. 

De Vaca was captured and held as a prisoner 
by the Indians, but after many hardships and 
narrow escapes, he succeeded in reaching the 
Spanish settlements in the western part of Mexico 
in 1536. During his wanderings De Vaca may 
have come within some two hundred miles of the 
Red River, but there is very little reason for 
thinking he reached the boundaries of what is 
now Oklahoma. 

Like all other Spanish explorers in the New 
World, De Vaca never lost an opportunity to 



SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 3 

iiKjiiire for gold. The Indians told him there 
were several cities a long distance to the north- 
ward where there was an abundance seven cities 
of gold. There had been an old legend °^ ^^^^^^ 
among the people of Spain that far to the west 
was a land containing seven cities fabulously rich. 
It was easy for an imaginative people like the Span- 
iards to believe that the cities of which De Vaca 
heard must be the seven mentioned in the legend. 
In 1539 Mendoza, the viceroy of Mexico, sent 
a priest; Marcos de Nizza, on an expedition to 
learn whether the cities heard of by De Vaca 
really existed. The negro Stephen, one of the 
three companions of De Vaca, accompanied 
Marcos, and being anxious to gain the glory of 
finding the cities, he hurried on ahead of ]\Iarcos. 
The negro reached the Zuni pueblos in the north- 
western part of what is now New Mexico. The 
Indians, believing him to be a spy, put him to 
death. His companions hurried back and met 
Marcos, who, upon hearing of the death of Stephen, 
became so frightened that he returned to Mexico 
without going on to the cities w^hich he supposed 
were the '' Seven Cities of Cibola." However, 
when he reached Mexico, he reported that he had 
found the seven cities. 



4 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

The next year (1540) Coronado, the governor 
of the northwest province of Mexico, started out 
coronado's i^^ scarch of the ^' Seven Cities." Be- 
journey ^^^.^ starting he obtained the consent, 

not only of Mendoza, but also of the Emperor 
Charles V, who was also king of Spain. Coronado 




ZuNi Pueblo 

started from Culiacan near the west coast of 
Mexico, with about three hundred Spaniards 
and a much larger number of Indians. He pro- 
ceeded northward until he reached the Zufii 
pueblos, which he found to be built of adobe or 
mud walls. The cities were not well constructed, 



SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 5 

like those Cortez had conquered, nor had the 
Indians any gold worth mentioning. Marcos, 
who started out to guide the expedition, was 
forced to turn l)ack for fear the disappointed 
soldiers would kill him. 

A fleet of vessels with supplies for Coronado 
followed along the east coast of the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia until the mouth of the Colorado River was 
reached. The commander, Alarcon, finding that 
he was in a gulf and not on the Pacific Ocean, 
turned back. A detachment sent by Coronado to 
intercept the fleet and get supplies reached the 
upper part of the Gulf of California and learned 
that the fleet had been there and gone. Think- 
ing the fleet had gone along the coast to the 
northward, Coronado sent another company west- 
ward when he reached the Zuni pueblos. This 
detachment discovered the Grand Can3^on of the 
Colorado River and learned from the Indians 
near there that the Pacific is many hundred miles 
to the westward. 

Coronado was disappointed, but not disheart- 
ened. He obtained some supplies from the 
Indians by barter and by force and decided to 
continue his search. Following the guidance of 
an Indian whom the soldiers nicknamed the Turk, 



6 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

the expedition was led in a southeasterly direc- 
tion until it reached a point in north-central 
Texas not far from the 100th meridian. Here the 
Turk was placed in chains^ as it was evident that 
he had been misleading them. He afterward 
acknowledged that he had hoped to take them to 
a place where they would perish for lack of water 
and food. Later, for this treacher}^ the Turk 
was strangled. 

Another Indian with Coronado, whose home 

was in Quivira, was selected as guide. As their 

supplies were almost exhausted Coro- 

Quivira 

nado decided at this point to send the 
larger part of his army back to the valley of the 
Ria Grande, where they could obtain food. Then, 
taking thirty of his strongest, best-equipped 
men, Coronado proceeded northw^ard across what 
is now Oklahoma, perhaps not far from where 
Lawton, El Reno, and Enid now are, until he 
reached the northern part of Kansas, near the 
present site of Manhattan. Here the guide, at 
his own request, was left. It seems that his home 
was in Quivira, and his only reason for wishing 
to be their guide was that he would be furnished 
a means of getting home, and food while on the 
way. 



SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 7 

Coronado, finding villages of grass tepees in- 
stead of cities of gold, started homeward. He 
went in a southwesterly direction, crossing what 
is now the Panhandle of Oklahoma, and reached 
the remainder of his army in New Mexico. From 
there he returned to Culiacan by the same route 
he had gone on his outward march. 

About the time (1541) Coronado was crossing 
Oklahoma, De Soto was approaching the Missis- 
sippi River. Some writers think Moscosco, the 
successor of De Soto, after the latter's death, may 
have entered the eastern part of what is now 
Oklahoma, but this is doubtful. It is also thought 
by some that Spanish priests established missions 
in the Wichita Mountains and that Spaniards 
engaged in mining in the same region, but we are 
not certain of either. We do know, however, 
that the Spaniards founded Santa Fe in 1605, and 
that they established settlements, in what is now 
southern Texas, in the early part of the eighteenth 
century. 

We may sum up the expeditions upon which 
Spain based her claim to the region comprising the 
present state of Oklahoma as follows : „ 

'■ Summary 

The discoveries of Columbus led to 
the expeditions of Balboa and Ponce de Leon. 



8 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

The gold obtained by Balboa led to the con- 
quests of Cortez and the voyage of Magellan. 

The glory and riches obtained by Cortez led 
to the attempts made by De Narvaez and De Soto. 

The wrecking of De Narvaez 's ships led to the 
wanderings of De Vaca. 

The story of De Vaca led to the expeditions of 
Marcos and Coronado. 

Coronado made a wonderful journey into an 
unknown land and actually passed through what 
is now Oklahoma, and was the first European to 
do so. 

Spain's claim, therefore, to this region was : 
1st, that Columbus discovered the New World; 
2d, that her explorers had been to the east, to the 
west, and to the south of Oklahoma ; 3d, that 
Coronado had actually passed through it ; 4th, 
that settlements had been established at Santa Fe 
and on the Rio Grande in Texas. 

Questions. Who was the first European to enter 
what is now Oklahoma? What led to his journey? 
Trace his journey. Who was Marcos ? Tell about the 
wanderings of De Vaca. What brought the Spaniards 
to the New World? What right had Spain to claim 
what is now Oklahoma ? What was the Spanish legend 
of the " Seven Cities " ? Locate the Wichita Mountains. 



FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 9 

Written Work. Write a description of the New 
Mexican pueblos. Write a story of the adventures of 
De Narvaez. A story of the conquests of Cortez. 

Readings. " Journey of Coronado," by G. P. 
Winship. " Colonial Fights and Fighters," Part I, 
by Cyrus T. Brady. 



LESSON 2 

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 

French fishermen, hearing of the abundance of 
fish in the waters near Newfoundland, through 
the reports of the Cabots, began to fish along the 
coast as early as 1503. Denys entered the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence in 1504. 

Among the first explorers to make very exten- 
sive ex-plorations was Verrazano, who in 1524 
ex-plored the Atlantic Coast from the Carolinas 
to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

Cartier (1535) ascended the St. Lawrence 
River to the present site of Montreal. In 1615 
Champlain discovered Lake Huron Mississippi 
and Lake Ontario. With this start ^^"^" 
other French explorers soon made their way to 
the other Great Lakes. Marquette and Joliet 



10 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

were the first to cross from the Great Lakes to 
the Mississippi River. This they did in 1673^ 
and they followed the river down to the mouth 
of the Arkansas River. Later (1682) La Salle 
succeeded in reaching the mouth of the ^^ Father 

of Waters." He for- 
mally took possession of 
the entire Mississippi 
basin in the name of 
Louis XIV of France. 
Hoping to establish a 
colony at the mouth of 
the river^ he returned to 
France^ organized an ex- 

RoBERT Cavelier DE La Salle t... i , -i 

pedition^ and set sail 
again for the New World. But he missed the 
mouth of the Mississippi River and landed at 
Matagorda Bay on the coast of Texas in 1685. 
Near that bay he built Fort St. Louis on the La 
Vaca River. Two years later La Salle, while try- 
ing to reach. the Mississippi River, was killed by 
one of his own men. Soon after, his colony, which 
was the first one established in that region, was 
destroyed by the Indians. 

Iberville established Biloxi (1699) in the south- 
ern part of Mississippi. This colony was moved 




FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 11 

to the present site of Mobile in 1702. Bienville 
founded New Orleans in 1718. 

Saint-Denis led an expedition across Texas to 
the Rio Grande in 1714. Du Tissenet led an 
exploration through Missouri and, no doubt, 
entered eastern Kansas (1719), but there is no 
good reason for thinking he was in Oklahoma. 
About the same time La Harpe ascended the 
Red River, and two years later he went up the 
Arkansas River. It is not certain that he entered 
Oklahoma, but it is more than likely that he did. 

From the founding of New Orleans (1718) to 
the close of the French and Indian War (1763) 
many Frenchmen were engaged in French in 
hunting, trapping, and trading for furs Oklahoma 
along the streams running into the Mississippi 
River from the west. The fact that the French 
got along well with the Indians, and that they 
were unusually successful in penetrating unknown 
regions, is sufficient proof that they entered the 
present limits of our state. Then, many streams 
in the eastern part of the state have French names ; 
for example : Poteau, Grand, Illinois, and San Bois. 

To summarize the ex7)editions which led the 
French toward Oklahoma, and gave France some 
right to this region, we have the following : 



12 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

Denys entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence (1504), 
Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence River to 
Montreal (1535), Champlain reached 
Lake Huron (1615), Marquette entered 
the Mississippi basin (1673), La Salle found the 
mouth of that river (1682). The French estab- 
lished colonies at Fort St. Louis (1685), Mobile 
(1702), and at New Orleans (1718). They ex- 
plored to the south, to the east, and to the north 
of what is now Oklahoma, and undoubtedly 
entjered its limits, and trapped along its streams. 

France, therefore, claimed this region : 1st, 
because a Frenchman discovered the mouth of 
the river which drains it ; 2d, because her explorers 
had been on three sides of it; 3d, because her 
countrymen had made use of it. 

Questions. What discoveries were made by Ver- 
razano? Who was the first European to ascend the 
St. Lawrence River? Who found the way to Lake 
Huron? Trace his route. What Frenchman found 
the way to the Mississippi River ? Who discovered its 
mouth? What settlements were made in the lower 
Mississippi valley? What right had France to claim 
the lands now included in Oklahoma? 

Written Wark. Write an article setting forth the 
reasons the Indians were usually friendly to the French. 



AMERICAN PJXPLORATIONS 



13 



Write on this subject, '' The French along the Streams." 
Write on, " The Jesuits." 

Readings. " EvangeUne," by Longfellow. " His- 
toric Towns of the Southern States " (Mobile and New 
Orleans), by Lyman Powell. '^ History of Louisiana," 
by Albert Phelps. 



LESSON 3 



AMERICAN EXPLORATIONS 

Soon after the United States obtained posses- 
sion of Louisiana^ expeditions were sent out to 
explore the new addition 
to our territory. Lewis 
and Clark left St. Louis in 
1804, ascended the Mis- 
souri River, and reached 
the Pacific Coast by way 
of the Columbia River. 

Zebulon M. Pike started 
from St. Louis (LS06), 
crossed what is now Mis- 
souri and Kansas and east- 
ern Colorado, and discovered the peak that bears 
his name. Then, while attempting to discover the 




Lieut. Zebulon Mont- 
gomery Pike 



14 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

source of the Red River, he pushed on to the Rio 
Grande, where he was taken prisoner by the Span- 
ish and sent back to the United States by way of 
New Orleans. 

Lieutenant James Wilkinson, a member of 
Pike's expedition, was permitted to return on 
account of illness. When this expedition reached 
the Arkansas River near the present site of Great 
Bend, Kansas, Wilkinson descended that river, 
passing through what is now Oklahoma (1806). 
This was undoubtedly the first American explor- 
ing party to pass through lands now included in 
Oklahoma. 

Then George C. Sibley, a United States Indian 
agent, made a trip to the salt plains in the region 
of the Cimarron and the Salt Fork of the Arkansas 
(1811). Fort Smith, Arkansas, was established 
on the Arkansas River at the mouth of the Poteau, 
near the eastern boundary of Oklahoma, by Major 
Stephen H. Long (1817). A trading post was set 
up at the mouth of the Verdigris River as early as 
1818. Whether it was established by Colonel 
Hugh Glenn, then abandoned and later occupied 
by A. P. Chouteau, or was operated by Glenn for 
Chouteau seems not to be known positively. 

Major William Bradford, in 1819, led an expe- 



AMERICAN EXPLORATIONS 15 

dition to drive out intruders who had settled in 
the valley of the Kiamitia River. With him was 
Thomas Nuttall, a Harvard botanist, who has left 
an account of many interesting experiences in this 
new country. Nuttall afterward went up the 
Arkansas and some of its tributaries, looking for 
new specimens of plant life. 

Another explorer who tried to trace the Red 
River was Major Stephen H. Long. He followed 
the Platte River to the base of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. He then went southward until he reached 
the Canadian River, which he mistook for the 
Red River. He descended the Canadian River 
to the Arkansas River which he followed to Fort 
Smith. Fort Gibson was established (1824) near 
the mouth of the Grand River, some eight miles 
from the present site of Muskogee, and a little 
later the same year Fort Towson was established 
not far from the mouth of the Kiamitia River. 

Expeditions into this region now became more 
frequent. Among the most interesting is the one 
described by Washington Irving in his '' Tour 
of the Prairies." A commissioner was sent out 
to look over the country west of Fort Gibson to 
determine whether that countiy was a fit place 
to settle Indians whom the government wished to 



16 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



move from the eastern states. The commissioner 
invited Irving to go along. Captain Bean com- 
manded the mounted men who were to accompany 
the commissioner. Another member of the com- 
pan}^ was an EngHsh writer, Charles J. Latrobe, 
who describes the journey 
in ^^The Rambler in North 
America in 1832 and 1833." 
The expedition left Fort Gib- 
son in October, 1832, and re- 
turned to that fort a month 
later, after going as far west 
perhaps as Kingfisher and 
Canadian counties. Irving 
tells, in his delightfully enter- 
taining manner, of many interesting incidents and 
scenes. 

Another expedition, worthy of mention, was 

that of General Henry Leavenworth, who escorted 

Montfort Stokes, special commissioner 

George Catlin , _ ,. , . • •, p ,i 

to the Indians, to the vicuuty or the 
Wichita Mountains. This was in 1834, and the 
purpose of the commissioner was to bring about 
friendly relations between the Kiowas and the 
Osages who were hostile to each other, and to 
induce the Plains Indians to make treaties with 




Washington Irving 



AMERICAN EXPLORATIONS 17 

the Eastern Indians who were then removing to 
the eastern part of the Indian Territory. The 
most important thing in connection with this 
expedition is that George CatHn, the celebrated 
painter of Indians and Indian scenes, was with 
the party and made a number of valuable paint- 
ings which preserve to us a correct idea of how the 
Indian on his native soil really appeared. 

As has been stated before, three attempts had 
been made to trace the source of the Red River. 
Captain Sparks (1806) had been turned source of the 
back by the Spanish, Lieutenant Pike ^^d River 
(1806) was taken prisoner by the Spanish, and 
Major Long had mistaken the Canadian for the 
Red River. Captain Randolph Marcy (1852) 
was ordered to trace the Red River to its source. 
He started with his men from Fort Belknap on 
the Brazos River in Texas and proceeded to the 
Red River near the mouth of Cache Creek. From 
there he went up the Red River, following the 
North Fork to its source. He then searched for 
and found the source of the main river. \Vhile 
exploring the river, he passed through the Wichita 
Mountains. In his report to the War Depart- 
ment he gives much interesting information about 
the country through which he passed. Captain 



18 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

George B. McClellan of the Engineer Corps, after- 
wards Commander of the Army of the Potomac, 
was with Marcy on this expedition. 

Questions. Who was the first American explorer 
to pass through Oklahoma ? Trace his journey. Name 
the attempts to find the source of the Red River. Who 
succeeded in locating the source of the Red River? 
Who was Irving? What did he write? Which of his 
works have you read ? 

Written Work. Write a brief review of '' Tour of the 
Prairies." Write about the work of George Catlin. 
Write a sketch of Zebulon M. Pike. 

Readings. '' Tour of the Prairies," by Washington 
Irving. " Thirty Years of Army Life," by Randolph 
B. Marcy. 



LESSON 4 ' 

OWNERSHIP OF OKLAHOMA 

As has already been seen^ the region now in- 
cluded in our state was claimed by different 
peoples. The Spanish claimed it because they 
had discovered America, — their explorers had 
been to the east, to the south, and to the west 
of it ; Coronado and his men had really planted 



OWNERSHIP OF OKLAHOMA 19 

their feet upon its soil. But from the time the 
Spanish failed to find gold in Quivira they paid 
little attention to this part of the country and 
really lost their right to it by abandoning it. 

The French claimed it because it was drained 
by the Mississippi River, the mouth of which they 
had discovered, and near which they claims to 
had founded a settlement (New Or- Oklahoma 
leans). They actually began settlement, not in 
Oklahoma, but in the Mississippi basin, although 
they had trapped and traded within its borders. 

The English claimed it because, having taken 
possession of the Atlantic Coast, they claimed 
the land between parallel lines, west to the 
Pacific Ocean. Based upon this assumed right, 
the Crown (1609) granted lands to the London 
Company which included the greater part of our 
present state. The grant of the CaroHnas in 
1663 included all of our state. But the English 
claim w^as hardly based upon any real right, 
as they had not even seen the countiy. 

Of the three countries mentioned, France seems 
to have had the best claims. The Indians really 
had the first right to it, at least first in point of 
time. But when these claims were being asserted, 
European people had little respect for Indian 



20 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

rights. Then there is some question as to whether 
any Indians really occupied this region as a home. 
The Wichitas claimed that they had lived near 
the Wichita Mountains for three hundred years 
before the Americans began to explore that part 
of the Louisiana Purchase. According to early 
accounts a division of the Osages occupied the 
northeastern part of this state and the Quapaws 
claimed the countr>^ south of the Osages. These 
three tribes had some right to the lands mentioned, 
no doubt. Several other tribes, including the 
Kaws, Pawnees, and Kiowas, hunted and warred 
within its boundaries. 

After the Indians, the title to the lands in our 
state as far west as the 100th meridian was in 
Title to France. At the close of the French 

Oklahoma ^j^^ Indisui War (1763) France trans- 
ferred her lands west of the Mississippi River 
(Louisiana) to Spain. In 1800, by secret treaty, 
Spain ced^d Louisiana to France, and in 1803 
France sold the same tract to the United States. 
By the purchase of Louisiana the United States 
really bought the Panhandle of Oklahoma, but 
by the treaty made with Spain (1819) the United 
States accepted the 100th meridian as the western 
boundary between the Red and the Arkansas 



OWNERSHIP OF OKLAHOMA 21 

rivers. So the Panhandle of Oklahoma remained 
Spanish territory until Mexico gained its inde- 
pendence (1821). It was a part of Mexico until 
Texas became independent (1836) and was added 
to the United States by the annexation of Texas 
(1845). 

By the terms of the treaty of annexation, Texas 
was to have no slaves north of 36° 30', or the part 
of the state north of that line was to be separated 
from Texas. Texas decided to dispose of this 
part north of 36° 30' as well as a large tract west 
of the 103d meridian. By one of the provisions 
of the Compromise Bill of 1850 the United States 
paid Texas $10,000,000 for the lands so given up. 
This strip of land between 36° 30' and 37° north 
latitude, and between the 100th and 103d merid- 
ians was added to Oklahoma Territory (1890) 
by the Organic Act, which was an act or bill 
passed by Congress, organizing Oklahoma as a 
territory. 

This strip, or panhandle; before its addition to 
Oklahoma was called officially the Public Land 
Strip by the United States, but it was commonly 
known as " No Man's Land " ; for it was a part 
of no state or territory and had no government 
recognized by the United States. When the Cher- 



22 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

okees were moved to their western home, they were 
given the land known as the Cherokee Outlet as 
far west as the 100th meridian. This formed the 
eastern l^oundary of No Man's Land. When 
Texas was annexed, she gave up the land north of 
36° 30'. This formed the southern boundar3^ 
^^TLen New Mexico Territory was organized by 
one of the pro\asions of the Compromise Bill of 
1850, its eastern boundary (103d meridian) be- 
came the western boundary of No Man's Land. 
When Kansas was organized as a territory b}^ the 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854), the southern line 
of Kansas (37°) became the north line of No 
Man's Land. Hence, this strip of land, 34 miles 
wide by 168 miles long, was left like a scrap of 
cloth when a garment has been cut out. 

To summarize, the transfers of title to the lands 
which form Oklahoma west to the 100th meridian 
were : Indians by li\dng and hunting there ; 
France by occupation and assuming control 
(1718) ; France to Spain (1763) by treaty ; Spain 
to France (1800) by secret treaty ; France to the 
United States (1803) by sale. 

Panhandle of Oklahoma : Spain by exploration 
(1541), then settlement at Santa Fe (1605) ; 
Spain to Mexico (1821), independence; Mexico 



OWNERSHIP OF OKLAHOMA 23 

to Texas, independence ; Texas to the United 
States, annexation. 

Questions. What Indians had their homes in Okla- 
homa? In what part of Oklahoma did they live? 
What real right did they have to the lands they oc- 
cupied? Trace the title of Oklahoma, east of the 100th 
meridian, from the Indians to the United States. Trace 
the title to the Panhandle from Spain to the Territory 
of Oklahoma. What right did England have to Okla- 
homa? How did the Compromise Bill of 1850 affect 
its boundaries ? The Kansas-Nebraska Bill ? 

Written Work. Set forth in writing the reasons why 
Spain had a strong claim to the lands included in Okla- 
homa. State in writing why France had a better right 
to these lands. Give brief biographies of : Columbus, 
De Soto, Coronado, Champlain, Marquette, La Salle, 
Pike, Marcy, Irving, Cathn. 



PERIOD OF REMOVAL OF THE FIVE 
CIVILIZED TRIBES 



LESSON 5 

REMOVAL OF THE CHEROKEES 

The idea of locating the Indians in a territory 
by themselves was set forth in a treaty made by 
the United States with the Delawares in 1778. 
Jefferson^ in giving his reasons for purchasing 
Louisiana, mentions the desirability of placing 
the Indians by themselves at some distance from 
the whites. Many of the leading men of the 
country and some of the missionaries among the 
Indians favored removing the Indians to some 
territory west of the Mississippi River where they 
would not be so likely to acquire the vices of the 
whites. 

On May 28, 1830, the President approved an 

act of Congress providing for the establishment 

of the Indian Territorv. This In- 

Plan an ^ *^ _ 

Indian diau couutry was rather indefinitely 

bounded, but included all of the coun- 
try west of Arkansas, Missouri, and Iowa, as far 

24 



REMOVAL OF Till-: CIir^ROKKES 



25 



west as the United States extended, or to the Rocky 
Mountains. Oklahoma without the Panhandle, 
Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas have since 
been carved out of it. 

The Cherokees, an important tribe of the 
Irociuoian group of Indians, at the time of the first 
English settlements, possessed a large country 
extending from a short distance west of the Caro- 
lina and Virginia settlements almost to the 
Mississippi River. By 1830 they had disposed 
of the larger part of their lands, and what they 
still owned was northern Georgia, northeastern 
Ala])ama, southeastern Tennessee, and western 
North Carolina. A good many whites had inter- 
married with them, and a 
large number of the tribe had 
settled down to peaceful pur- 
suits. 

When the United States 
became independent, the state 
of Georgia extended to the 
Mississippi River. It was the 
desire of the United States 
that Georgia should give up 
all her lands west of her present limits. In 1802 
Georgia ceded her western lands to the United 




John Ross 



26 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

States with the understanding that the Indians 
would be removed from the state as soon as it 
could be done peaceably. 

Many of the Cherokees were opening up and 
improving farms and it became evident to the 
Georgia urges people of Georgia that it would be- 
removai comc more and more difficult to have 

them removed. As the Cherokees had a tribal 
government, it was a case of a state within a 
state, which is an unsatisfactory arrangement. 
Further, the people of Georgia thought the Cher- 
okees had more good land than they could use, 
and the whites wished to dig for gold on this 
land. 

For these reasons the Georgians became very 
impatient to have the Indians removed. 

While the Federal Government was under prom- 
ise to move the Indians, it was reluctant to do so 
by force. The state passed laws against the 
Cherokees and the whites who dwelt among them. 
One law provided that any white person living 
among the Indians should take an oath to sup- 
port the laws of the state and should obtain a 
license. Two missionaries were sent to the peni- 
tentiary for violating that law. They appealed 
their case to the Supreme Court of the United 



REMOVAL OF THE CHEROKEES 27 

States and that Court; through its Chief Justice, 
John Marshall, decided that the men could not 
legally be held, l^ut should be discharged. The 
state refused to release them and President Jack- 
son would not interfere. After serving sixteen 
months, they were liberated by the governor. 

Some of the Cherokees, under the leadership of 
Major Ridge, his son John, and Elias Boudinot, 
began to favor removal, thinking that NewEchota 
the}^ would be forced to move sooner '^^^^^y 
or later. United States commissioners called a 
council of the Cherokees to meet in December, 
1835, at New Echota, the capital of the Cherokee 
Nation East. The Ridges, Boudinot, and a few 
others attended. A treaty for removal was agreed 
upon and signed by six Indians, with the under- 
standing that it was not to become effective until 
signed by the Ross delegation then in Washington. 
John Ross and his party refused to sign the treaty, 
but it was ratified by the United States Senate the 
next year, and the Cherokees were ordered to 
move to the new lands assigned them in the 
Indian Territory. 



Questions. What land was held by the Cherokees 
when Jamestown was settled? What land did they 



28 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

own in 1830? What agreement did the United States 
make with Georgia in 1802? Why did not the United 
States keep its promise? Why was Georgia not wilUng 
for the Cherokees to stay where they were ? What law 
did Georgia make to apply to white men among the 
Indians? Why was that law made? Who was John 
Marshall? 

Written Work. Write on Georgia's treatment of the 
Cherokees. The New Echota Treaty. 

Readings. Read about De Soto among the Cher- 
okees in " Border Fights and Fighters," Part I, by 
Brady. 



LESSON 6 
REMOVAL OF THE CHEROKEES (Concluded) 

The Cherokees refused to go, and remained in 
their homes until removed in 1838 by General 
Winfield Scott with an army of two thousand men. 
This is one of the saddest chapters in American 
history. Some sixteen thousand men, women, 
and children were forcibly ejected from their 
homes and escorted to the West. About four 
thousand perished on the way. 

It may be implied from a statement already 
made, that there was at this time a Cherokee 



REMOVAL OF THE CHEROKEES 



29 




WiNFiELD Scott 



Nation West. Before the American Revolution 
a good many Scotch and EngHsh had intermar- 
ried with the Cherokees. Being loyal to Great 
Britain, they had helped to 
influence the Cherokees to take 
sides with the English during 
the Revolution. After the close 
of the war the United States 
made a treaty wdth the Chero- 
kees, at which time many pres- 
ents were distributed among 
the Indians. A small party of 
the Indians departed for their 
home and on the w^ay fell in with some white traders 
who were going down the Tennessee River. The 
traders sold whisky to the Indians, and while the 
latter were under the influence of the licjuor, se- 
cured about everything the Government had given 
the Indians, giving in return nothing of much 
value. When the Indians had recovered from the 
effects of the liquor, they wanted to trade back. 
The whites refusing, a number of shots were 
exchanged, and as a result the white men were 
killed. Bowl, the leader of the party of Indians, 
and his followers, fearing the government authori- 
ties, fled to Arkansas (1785), which was then out- 



30 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

side of the United States. From time to time 
other Cherokees followed. Between 1809 and 1817 
large numbers went west. 

In 1803, b}^ the Louisiana Purchase, the United 
States came into possession of a large tract of 
country west of the Mississippi. In 1817 the 
Government granted the Cherokee Nation West 
a tract of land between the White and Arkansas 
rivers. At that time there were about six thou- 
sand of them. Later, the people of Arkansas be- 
gan to feel the same way toward the Western 
Cherokees as the people of Georgia did toward 
their eastern brethren. In 1828 the United States 
induced the Cherokees in Arkansas to move into 
the Indian Territory. 

As has already been stated the eastern division 

was brought west in 1838, or ten years later. In 

1839 a Constitution was adopted for 

United Nation 

the United Cherokee Nation and John 
Ross was chosen principal chief. But there were 
factions among them for many years. The West- 
ern Cherokees, having come into the Indian 
Territory ten years earlier, were known as the 
^' Old Settlers.'' Then there was a Ridge faction 
made up of those who favored the treaty. The 
Ridges and Elias Boudinot were assassinated in 



REMOVAL OF THE CHEROKEES 31 

1839, because they favored removal and had signed 
the treaty. 

The Cherokees were given a lai'ge tract of land 
in the northeastern part of what is now Oklahoma 
as their home. They were also given a strip of 
land fifty-eight miles wide, extending along the 
northern portion of the state from the 96th to the 
100th meridian, as an outlet to the mountains. 

Questions. Who was Winfield Scott? Who 
ordered him to move the Cherokees? How many 
Cherokees died on the way ? During what time of year 
was the removal? What was the Cherokee Nation 
West? Who were the '^ Old Settler" Cherokees? 
What other factions among the Cherokees ? What is a 
faction? Where were the Cherokees located in the 
Indian Territory ? Who was elected principal chief of 
the United Nation? 

Written Work. Write a description of the removal 
of the Cherokees. How the Cherokee Nation West 
was formed. 

Reading. Life of General Winfield Scott. 



32 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



LESSON 7 



REMOVAL OF THE CREEKS 



The Creeks, or, as they called themselves, 
Muscogees, originally occupied a large part of 
Georgia and Alabama, just south of the Cherokees. 
They aided the English dur- 
ing the Revolution, also during 
the War of 1812. At the 
close of the latter war they 
were forced to give up part of 
their lands. When the agi- 
tation for the removal of the 
southern Indians began in real 
earnest, part of the Creek 
lands were in Georgia, but the 
larger part in Alabama, directly south of the 
Cherokees. 

At the urgent request of the people of Georgia, 
a treaty was negotiated by the United States, 
Removal ^ith William Mcintosh and a few 
from Georgia Q^^gj. Qreeks (1825), by which a few 
chiefs, claiming to represent the tribe, ceded to 
the United States their lands in Georgia. The 
whites moved upon the Creek lands without wait- 




Tecumseh 



REMOVAL OF THE CREEKS 33 

ing for the legality of the treaty to be determined. 
The other Creeks, outraged by the action of Mc- 
intosh and his associates, were so incensed that 
they withdrew to the Creek lands of Alabama. 
But the people in Alabama were just as anxious 
to get rid of the Indians as were the people of 
Georgia. 

Gradually the Creeks became convinced that 
they would some time be compelled to move. 
In 1832 they made a treaty cedine; 

xi • 1 1 • A 1 1 1 TT . 1 Removal to 

then' lands m Alabama to the United Indian 
States, and agreeing to move to the ^^^^ °^^ 
lands assigned to them in Indian Territory. By 
this agreement they were not to move at once, 
but, as the whites rushed upon the land without 
waiting for it to be surveyed, the Creeks were 
forced to go sooner than they expected. Most of 
them went within a few years after the treaty. 

The lands assigned the Creeks in the Indian 
Territor}^, and to which they moved after the 
treaty made in 1832, were south of the Cherokee 
Outlet, west of the Cherokee Nation proper, and 
north of the Canadian River. Chilly Mcintosh 
and the Coweta band of Creeks had moved to 
these lands soon after the death of William 
Mcintosh, the father of Chilly. 



34 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

Questions. What land did the Creeks own when 
America was first settled? What lands were theirs 
in 1825? Why were these Indians called Creeks? 
What did they call themselves? Who was William 
Mcintosh? What can you say of him? What lands 
were assigned to the Creeks in the Indian Territory ? 

Written Work. Write a description of the country 
through which the Creeks passed in going to the Indian 
Territory. Write a sketch of Tecumseh. Write your 
opinion of William Mcintosh. 



LESSON 8 



REMOVAL OF THE CHOCTAWS AND 
CHICKASAWS 

The Choctaws were Mobilian Indians whose 
home was in the central part of Mississippi, extend- 
ing into Alabama. De Soto had trouble with 
them. They were mostly on the side of Great 
Britain during the Revolution, but aided the 
United States during the War of 1812. 

Mississippi, like Georgia, desired to get rid of 
the Indian governments within her jurisdiction. 
Mississippi Ii^ order to do so the laws of the state 
for removal (1830) Were made binding upon the 
Choctaws. The Indians, feeling that this would 



THE CHOCTAWS AND C^HICKASAWS 35 

eventually break up their nation, reluctantly 
agreed to give up their lands and move. 

They had already given up pai't of their lands 
(1S20) and had received in return lands between 
the Red and the Canadian rivers in Indian Ter- 
ritoiy. Then by the Treaty of Dancing Ral)bit 
Creek (1830) the}^ gave up the rest of their lands 
east of the Mississippi River and began to move 
to their new lands in the west. They WTre not 
forced to move at one time, but when a number 
were ready to go, the Government carried them by 
steamboat up the Arkansas River to their new 
home. A few Choctaws were permitted to re- 
main in Mississippi. 

The Chickasaws, a kindred tribe to the Choc- 
taws, lived in northern Mississippi and western 
Tennessee. They were more warlike 

1 1/^1 1 1 • 1 Chickasaws 

than the Choctaws, and durmg the 
Revolution they helped the English. In 1818 they 
sold their lands in Tennessee. In 1830 the state 
of Mississippi made the Chickasaws subject to the 
laws of the state as it did the Choctaws. The 
Indians claimed this to be very unjust as they 
could not understand English or the laws of the 
state. On account of this treatment they signed 
the treaty of Pontotoc Creek (1832), giving up 



36 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

their lands in Mississippi and promising to move 
west. The whites as usual were so impatient to 
go upon the lands that they could not wait for the 
Indians to move^ but really crowded the Indians 
out. 

In 1837 the Chickasaws made an arrangement 
wdth the Choctaws by which they were to give 
the Choctaws $530,000 for a district in the lands 
of the latter, and each tribe was to have ecjual 
rights in the tribal government. Later a dis- 
agreement arose between the tribes as to the 
meaning of equal rights. The Chickasaws claimed 
it to mean that their tribe was to have 

Chickasaws 

separate from as much powcr in the government as 
the Choctaw tribe had. The Choctaws 
claimed the tribes were to have equal rights accord- 
ing to the population. The Chickasaw tribe was 
much smaller than the Choctaw tribe. In 1855 
the matter was settled by the United States. The 
Chickasaws were to pay the Choctaws $150,000, 
were to govern their own district, and were to be 
separated politically from the Choctaws 

Questions. What was the home of the Choctaws 
east of the Mississippi River? Why did Mississippi 
want to get rid of the Indians? Why did the Indians 
object to being under the laws of the state? What 



REMOVAL OF THE SEMINOLES 37 

was the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ? What lands 
were given to the Choctaws in Indian Territory ? How 
were the Choctaws moved ? What was the home of the 
Chickasaws east of the Mississippi River? What ar- 
rangement did the Chickasaws make with the Choc- 
taws in 1837 ? What trouble arose between them later ? 
How was it settled ? 

Written Work. Write your opinion of Mississippi's 
attitude toward the Indians. Write a brief biography 
of Pushmataha. 



LESSON 9 

REMOVAL OF THE SEMINOLES 

The Seminole tribe was formed of runaway 
Creeks and remnants of tribes with which the 
Spanish had come into contact. The Seminoles 
were against the Americans during the Revolu- 
tion and during the War of 1812. Trouble with 
these Indians caused General Andrew Jackson 
to invade Florida in 1818. 

By a treaty made in 1832 the Seminoles agreed 
to give up their lands in Florida and move west, 
but many of them were unwilling to be Resented 
bound by the treaty and refused to ^^"^^^^ 
leave Florida. In 1835 the Government at- 



38 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



tempted to remove them by force. A war fol- 
lowed lasting almost seven years which cost the 
United States nearly fifteen hundred lives and 
about $10,000,000. Osceola, their leader, was one 
of the most powerful of Indian chiefs. Finally 
he was captured by treachery and kept in prison 
until he died. His followers were overcome and 
removed to the Indian Ter- 
ritoiy (1842), where they 
were settled on the lands of 
their kinsmen, the Creeks. 

Being fewer in number than 

the Creeks, they had but little 

power in the tribal govern- 

- ment. They were dissatisfied 

Wf~m ^w , # also because they felt that 

they would soon lose their 

Osceola. (After Catlin) identity aS a UatioU. lu 1856 

the Government succeeded in having a part of 
the Creek lands set apart for the Seminoles as 
their own. Their lands were bounded on the 
north by the North Canadian River and the 
Cherokee Outlet, on the south by the South 
Canadian River, and they extended from a point 
near the 97th meridian to the Texas line. 

In brief the Five Civilized Tribes formerly held 




REMOVAL OF THE 8EMINOLE8 39 

most of the region east of the Mississippi River, 
and south of the Ohio River to the coast. 
Durino; the early part of the nine- 

.^ ^. ^ , Summary 

teenth century the southern states, 
Georgia taking the lead, took steps to force these 
tribes to remove to the west. The states olDJected 
to having independent Indian states within their 
borders. The whites also thought the Indians had 
more good land than they needed or could use. 

The Cherokees were moved from Georgia, 
Alabama, Tennessee, and North Carolina to the 
northeastern part of the Indian Territory (1S8(S) ; 
the Western Cherokees from Arkansas to the In- 
dian Territory (1828). The Creeks were moved 
from Georgia to Alabama (1825) ; a few of them 
went to the central part of the Indian Territory 
at that time. The main body of the Creeks was 
moved from Alabama to the west in 1832. The 
Choctaws moved from Mississippi to the south- 
ern part of the Indian Territory (1830). The 
Chickasaws moved from northern Mississippi to 
the Choctaw lands in Indian Territory (1837). 
The Seminoles were moved from Florida to the 
Creek lands in the Indian Territory (1842). Four 
of the tribes moved reluctantly but peaceably to 
their new homes. The Seminoles fought desper- 



40 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

ately against removal, but were finally overcome 
after seven years of fighting. The Chickasaws 
were given separate tribal government in 1855. 
The Seminoles were separated from the Creeks 
and given their own lands in 1856. 

Questions. Who were the Seminoles? Where was 
their eastern home? Who was their great leader? 
When were the Seminoles moved west ? What did the 
Seminole war cost the United States? Why did the 
Seminoles want to be separated from the Creeks? 
What lands were they given ? Why did the Chickasaws 
want a separate government from the Choctaws? 
Where was the eastern home of each of the tribes? 
The western home of each? When was each moved? 
Why? 

Written Work. Write a brief account of the 
Seminole war. Write a biography of Osceola. Write 
an account of the purchase of Florida. 



PERIOD OF CIVIL WAR IN INDIAN 
TERRITORY 



LESSON 10 

CIVILIZED TRIBES JOIN THE CONFEDERACY 

The misunderstanding between the North and 
the South which led to the Civil War was a quarrel 
in which the Five Civilized Tribes were not 
directly interested, but they were soon drawn into 
it. 

For several reasons their sympathies were 
with the South. All of the tribes held slaves. 
By location they were a part of the ^^^^^^^^^ 
South. They were bounded on the joining the 
east and on the south and on the west 
by slave states. Many whites from the southern 
states had intermarried with the Indians. They 
had been associated more with southern people, 
and the civilized ways w^hich they had acquired 
were learned from southern people. WTien the 
war began, the Federal troops were withdrawn 
from the Indian Territoiy, which may have caused 

41 



42 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

the Indians to feel as if they had been abandoned 
by the Federal Government. The Indian agents 
were mostly southern men, and the commissioners 
from the Confederacy, especially Albert Pike, were 
veiy active and had great influence with the 
Indians. 

The two southern tribes, the Choctaws and the 
Chickasaws, were almost unanimously in favor of 
the South The Choctaw Council decided, Feb- 
ruary 7, 1861, but three days after the Confederacy 
was formed, that they would go with the South, 
should the Union be permanently dissolved. The 
Chickasaw legislature, May 13, 1861, less than a 
month after the fall of Fort Sumter, withdrew their 
allegiance to the United States and declared their 
friendship for the South. 

The Cherokees, Creeks, and Seminoles were 
divided almost equally in their sympathies for the 
Ross and Uuiou and for the Confederacy. The 
Ridge Cherokees, however, were not divided 

solely on the question of secession. The Ross and 
the Ridge factions had much to do with the di- 
vision. The Ridge faction which had favored 
removal to the west was not bitter in its feelings 
toward Georgia and the other southern states. 
The members of that faction, under the leadership 



CIVILIZED TRIBES JOIN THE CONFEDERACY 43 

of Stand Watie, favored an alliance with the Con- 
federacy. Ross advised neutrality. However, he 
called a convention to decide the matter. The 
convention met August 21, 1861, and declared 
in favor of an alliance with the Confederacy. 
Ross reluctantly yielded. 

The Creeks were divided in much the same 
way. As stated before, William Mcintosh had 
caused a division by favoring removal from 
Georgia. His sons, D. N. Mcintosh and Chilly 
Mcintosh, now espoused the southern cause and 
became colonel and lieutenant colonel of a Creek 
regiment. Yo-ho-la, the leader of the Creeks, 
who had denounced the elder Mcintosh, took 
the side of the Union. 

General Albert Pike, the commissioner ap- 
pointed by the Confederacy to secure treaties 
with the Indians, met delegates from the Creeks, 
Seminoles, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, x\ugust 1, 
1S(31, and formed treaties of alliance and friendship 
with them. A little later Pike made treaties at 
the Wichita Agency (Anadarko) with represent- 
atives of the Wichita, Caddo, Comanche, Ton- 
kawa, and other tribes. In October he concluded 
treaties with the members of the Osage, Quapaw, 
Seneca, and Shawnee tribes. By these agree- 



44 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

ments the Indian Territoiy was made a part of 
the Confederacy. 

Questions. In the Civil War, which side did the 
Five Civihzed Tribes take? Give their reasons for 
taking that side. How did the Choctaws and Chicka- 
saws stand as to the side they should take? Tell how 
the Cherokees came to be divided into factions. What 
had divided the Creeks into factions ? When and where 
was the Confederacy organized? Where was the capi- 
tal at the beginning of the war ? Who was Albert Pike ? 
Locate the Wichita Agency. What is an Indian 
Agency? 

Written Work. Write brief biographies of John 
Ross, Major Ridge, Yo-ho-la, and William Mcintosh. 



LESSON 11 

EVENTS OF 1861 AND 1862 

At the opening of the war there were but few 

Federal troops in the Indian Territory. They 

were distributed among a number of 

withdr^aw forts a loug distance from each other. 

fromindian Licutenaut Colouel William H. Emorv 

Territory ^ 

was the commanding officer in this de- 
partment. These forts were so far away from an 



EVENTS OF 1S61 AND 1862 45 

important Federal center that it was difficult to 
reenforce the small garrisons or to send them 
supplies. Not able to withstand the forces of the 
Confederates, which were far superior to his in 
numbers, there was nothing left for Colonel Emory 
to do but to collect the garrisons from Forts Smith, 
Washita, Arbuckle, and Cobb and march to Fort 
Leavenworth, Kansas, a distance of four hundred 
miles. The Indian Territor}^ was then practi- 
cally in the hands of the Confederacy. 

When the Federal troops withdrew from Fort 
Cobb, many of the Indians at the Wichita Agency 
followed the troops northward. Among them 
were the Caddo, Wichita, and Delaware tribes. 
The Confederates soon overran the Territory. 
Little effort was made on the part of the North 
to hold the Indian Territory, except that which 
was made by the loyal Indians, especially the 
Creeks under Yo-ho-la. 

During 1861 no important battles were fought 
in the Indian Territory. Yo-ho-la with his Creeks 
was defeated by Colonel Douglas H. i86i, battles 
Cooper at Bird Creek, a few miles and^^'hoar''' 
north of the present site of Tulsa. A ^^^^^ 
week later Yo-ho-la was defeated at Shoal 
Creek. 



46 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

111 1862 Generals Curtis and Siegel, with about 
ten thousand Union men^ carried the war into 
Battle of Arkansas. At Pea Ridge they encoun- 
Pea Ridge tered a somewhat larger force of Con- 
federates under Generals Van Dorn, Price, and 
McCulloch, March 6, 1862. This battle was in 
Arkansas, yet it had a very important bearing 
upon affairs in the Indian Territory. According 
to the agreements made betv/een the Confederacy 
and the Indians, the latter were not compelled 
to go out of the Territory to fight. However, an 
Indian brigade under General Albert Pike was with 
the Confederate forces in this battle, which was 
the largest and most desperate battle in which 
the Indians took part during the war. The 
Confederates were defeated, and this had a de- 
moralizing effect upon the Indians. 

In June, 1862, Colonel Weir, with a body of 
Union men, marched from southeastern Kansas 
into the Cherokee country. The principal chief, 
John Ross, was taken prisoner. Ross really 
preferred to remain neutral, but he and many 
other Cherokees were favorably inclined toward 
the North. They had not forgotten that Georgia 
and some of the other southern states had forced 
the Indians from their former homes. About this 



EVENTS OF LSGl AND 1862 47 

time the Confederates transferred many of their 
men from Arkansas to the east side of the Missis- 
sippi River to aid in checking Grant's advance 
toward Vicksl)urg. The Cherokee Nation was 
thus left exposed to the armies of the North and 
had apparently been abandoned by the Confed- 
erates. 

Without accomplishing much Colonel Weir 
withdrew from the Territory, and the Confed- 
erates again entered the Cherokee capital. They 
deposed Ross as principal chief and elected 
Stand Watie to that position. The Cherokees 
who were loyal to the Union still considered Ross 
their chief, while those who favored the Confed- 
eracy looked to Stand Watie. Ross went to 
Washington and did not return to the Territory 
until the close of the war. 

In October, 1862, General James G. Blunt, with 
a Union army, marched south into the Cherokee 
Nation and defeated the Confederates under 
Colonel D. H. Cooper at Old Fort Wayne, and 
Colonel Wm. A. Phillips retook Fort Gibson. At 
the close of the year (1862) the Federals held the 
country north of the Arkansas River. The Con- 
federates controlled south of that river. The 
Tonkawas were about the only Plains Indians 



48 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

on the Washita River who remained faithful to 
the Confederates. October 23, 1862, a band of 
Indians loyal to the North, consisting of Dela- 
wares. Creeks, Kickapoos, and Shawnees, attacked 
the Tonkawas at Wichita Agency. Most of the 
Tonkawas were killed, the remainder fled to 
Texas. 

Questions. What Federal officer commanded the 
department including the Indian Territory at the 
beginning of the war? Where were the garrisons 
stationed ? To what fort did these garrisons withdraw ? 
Locate Forts Smith, Washita, Arbuckle, Cobb, and 
Leavenworth. Name, locate, and give result of a battle 
fought in the Indian Territory in 1861. What was the 
result of the first year of the war in the Territory? 
What effect did the battle of Pea Ridge have upon the 
Cherokees? Why? What was the Cherokee capital? 
Locate it. Why was Ross deposed ? Who was chosen 
to take his place? By whom? Who retook Fort 
Gibson? What was the result of the second year of the 
war? 

Written Work. Write an account of the battle of 
Pea Ridge. Write brief biographies of Generals Franz 
Siegel, Earl Van Dorn, S. R. Curtis, and Sterling Price. 



EVENTS OF 1863 AND 18G4 49 

LESSON 12 

EVENTS OF 1863 AND 1864 

As stated before, a large number of the Chero- 
kees wished to cast their lot upon the side of the 
Union. Their country was now in the hands 
of the Federals. It seemed an opportune time 
to change. Captain Thomas Pegg, who was 
acting principal chief, called together the National 
Council, February 18, 1863. The Council re- 
nounced its allegiance to the Confederacy, de- 
clared its loyalty to the United States, and at the 
same time abolished slavery. Stand Watie sum- 
moned that part of the Cherokee Council which 
favored the Confederacy to meet at Webber 
Falls, April 25, 1863. Colonel Phillips prevented 
the meeting. 

In July General Blunt crossed the Arkansas 
River with three thousand men and attacked 
General Cooper with a large number of Confed- 
erates at Honey Springs, not far from where 
Muskogee now stands. The Confederates resisted 
bravely, but their equipment was inferior to that 
of the Federals, and they were forced to retreat 
with considerable loss. 



50 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

The next month General Bkmt moved against 
the Confederate General Steele. The forces of 
Fort Smith the latter were divided into three divi- 
retaken sions, each retreating in a different 

direction. Blunt followed Cooper and Stand 
Watie toward the south and defeated them at 
Perry ville, August 25. General Blunt took pos- 
session of Fort Smith, September 1, 1863. This 
gave the Union forces control of the river above 
that point and gave them much the advantage 
in the Indian country at the close of 1863. 

The year 1864 opened with Colonel Phillips 
making a winter campaign into the central and 
southern part of the Indian countiy. His aim 
was to induce Indians to break their alliance with 
the Confederacy and renew their allegiance to 
the Union. 

In April, 1864, the Indians had an opportunity 
to engage in another battle on Arkansas soil. 
As has already been said, they were 
Poison not compelled to go out of the Indian 

Territory to fight. However, some of 
them were willing to go. General S. B. Maxey, 
who now commanded the Confederate forces in 
the Indian Territory, attacked and captured a 
Federal wagon train at Poison Springs, Arkansas. 



EVENTS OF 1863 AND 1864 51 

Stand Watie captured a Federal supply steamer, 
/. R. Williams, at Pheasant Bluff, near the mouth 
of the Canadian River, June 15, 1864. A Federal 
detachment coming up soon after the capture. 
Stand Watie was forced to burn the supplies and 
retreat. 

In September about two thousand Confederates 
under Generals Gano and Stand Watie marched 
around Fort Gibson, crossed the Ar- Battle of 
kansas River, and burned a Federal cabin creek 
hay camp. They then moved northward and 
attacked a Federal wagon train on its way from 
Fort Scott to Fort Gibson, at Cabin Creek. The 
Union escort was defeated, and the entire train 
of three hundred wagons was taken by the Con- 
federates. Federal reenforcements under Colonel 
J. M. Williams came up after a forced march and 
renewed the fight. During the night the Con- 
federates withdrew with one hundred and twenty- 
nine of the wagons, after burning the supplies 
they could not take with them. 

Questions. When did the Cherokees return to the 
Union? Who was acting princi])al chief? Where 
was the principal chief? Why did the Cherokees 
decide to join their fortunes with the Union? Did all 
of them withdraw from the Confederacy? Who was 



52 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

leader of the Confederate Cherokees? Name, locate, 
and give result of a battle fought during 1863. Of two 
battles fought in 1864. Why was the retaking of Fort 
Smith important to the Federals ? Which side had the 
advantage in the Indian Territory at the close of 1863? 
At the close of 1864? 

Written Work. Write a brief account of Grant's 
first attempt to take Vicksburg. Write brief biogra- 
phies of Generals James G. Blunt, Stand Watie, William 
A. Phillips, and R. M. Gano. 



LESSON 13 
END OF THE WAR 



During the last year of the war (1865) no battles 
of consequence were fought in the Indian Terri- 
tory. It was evident that the war was about 
over. After General R. E. Lee surrendered, 
April 9, 1865, the remaining Confederate armies 
soon yielded. May 26, General Kirby Smith 
surrendered the department west of the Missis- 
sippi to General Canby. 

The Confederate Indians, realizing that the 
war was virtually over, called a peace council of 
all the Indians of the Five Civilized Tribes and 
the Plains Indians to meet at Council Grove on 



END OF THE WAR 53 

the North Canadian River on May 1, 1865. This 
was to be a meeting of all the Indians of the Terri- 
tor}^, both Union and Confederate. 
The Council was not held until May coundiar^^ 
26, at which time it met at Camp p^^^^^^^^^" 
Napoleon on the Washita River. Their 
purpose was to agree to be at peace among them- 
selves and to stand together in asserting their 
rights. They were fearful lest the Federal Govern- 
ment, in treating with each tribe separately, 
might deprive them of many of their former 
rights. 

Representatives of the Civilized Tribes and of 
the Plains Tribes met and signed a peace com- 
pact by which they agreed to buiy 
the tomahawk, break the scalping knife, Peace com- 
and be at peace among themselves for- 
ever. They agreed to form an Indian Confed- 
eracy and have for its motto — '^ An Indian shall 
not shed an Indian's blood.'' The compact was 
made between the Confederate Indian tribes and 
a number of the tribes of the Plains. 

At the close of the war conditions were deplor- 
able in the Indian Territoiy. The Cherokees, 
Creeks, and Seminoles were di\aded. Bitter 
hatred existed between the factions. The Choc- 



54 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

taws and the Chickasaws, having been almost a 
unit for the South, were not divided. Most of 
the property in the Territory except that near the 
Red River had been destroyed. Houses had been 
burned, fields laid waste, and stock driven off. 
Both Union and Confederate Indians had suffered 
at the hands of the other. 

At the beginning of the war the few Federal 
soldiers who were in the Territory were with- 
drawn to Fort Leavenworth. The 

Summary 

Five Civilized Tribes joined the Con- 
federacy. The Cherokees, Creeks, and Seminoles 
were divided. The Confederates controlled the 
Territory at the end of the first year. The Battle 
of Pea Ridge caused some of the Cherokees to 
waver in their support of the South. The Federals 
controlled the territory north of the Arkansas 
River at the close of the second year of the war. 
The Cherokees returned to the Union, February 18, 
1863. Stand Watie's supporters remained true 
to the Confederac}^ The Federals controlled 
most of the Territory at the close of the third 
year of the war. The Confederates made a num- 
ber of successful attempts to capture Federal 
supplies during 1864. Confederate and Plains 
Indians held a peace council May 26, 1865. 



END OF THE WAR 55 

Questions. Give location of tlie Five Civilized 
Tribes. Which side in the war did they take? Why? 
Locate the forts in the Territory. Name, locate, and 
give result of five battles. Why did the Cherokees 
change sides? Where was a peace council held? Its 
purpose? What Confederate general commanded the 
department west of the Mississippi at the close of the 
war? Name the Federal officers who took part in the 
war in the Territory. Tell something about each. 
Name the Confederate officers. Tell something about 
each. 

Written Work. Write an account of the conditions 
in the Territory at the close of the war. Write about 
the peace council. Give the substance of the Indian 
Peace Compact. 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 



LESSON 14 

TERMS OF THE TREATIES 

The Indians who had joined the Confederacy 
were anxious to know how the United States would 
deal with them. Peter P. Pitchtynn, principal 
chief of the Choctaws, called a general peace 
council of all the tribes in the Indian Territor}^ 
to meet at Armstrong Academy in the Choctaw 
Nation, September 1, 1865. The plan was to meet 
commissioners of the United States for the purpose 
of renewing treaties with the Federal Government. 

The Council was held September 8, at Fort 
Smith, at which place commissioners of the 
Peace Council United Statcs met representatives of 
at Fort Smith ^j^g Indian tribes. There was also 
present a delegation of prominent men from 
Kansas, who were there to insist that the Five 
Civilized Tribes permit other Indians to be placed 
on their lands. Kansas was anxious to get rid 
of the Indians that had been settled in that state. 

56 



TERMS OF THE TREATIES 57 

The Indians were informed that by taking up 
arms against the United States they had forfeited 
their treaty rights and that their prop- peace 
erty was hable to confiscation ; but conditions 
that the Government did not wish to take their 
homes from them. They were told, however, 
that the Government would insist on the follow- 
ing terms : 

1. Their slaves must be freed and be given 
tribal rights if they chose to remain wdth the 
tribe. 

2. They must agree to sell part of their lands 
upon which the Government might settle freed- 
men or loA^al Indians. 

3. All of the tribes in the Territory must organ- 
ize under one territorial government. 

Many of the Indians were not willing to agree 
to some of these terms. Some objected to giving 
up lands to other Indians. Others did not want 
to give tribal rights to their ex-slaves. Nothing 
was accomplished, and the Council adjourned to 
meet in Washington the next year. 

Representatives of the Indians met in Wash- 
ington early in 1866. Several months Terms of the 
were required to arrange the treaties, treaties, 1 866 
The treaties differed somewhat in detail, but 



58 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

agreed in many of the most important features 
which, in substance, were as follows : 

1. Slavery must be abolished. 

2. Freedmen must be given tribal rights. 

3. Loyal Indians must be paid for losses incurred 
during the war. 

4. Right-of-way must be granted to rail- 
roads. 

5. A territorial government must be formed for 
all the tribes in the Indian Territory. 

6. Amnesty must be granted, and there must 
be peace among the tribes. 

7. The Five Civilized Tribes must give up lands 
to other Indians. 

The Choctaws and the Chickasaws gave their 
freedmen or freed slaves forty acres of land each, 
but they were not to share in the annuities or 
trust funds of the tribes. The Cherokees, Creeks, 
and Seminoles shared their lands equally with 
their freedmen. 

Questions. Who called a peace council? Where 
and when did it meet? For what purpose? Who 
were represented in the Council? What conditions 
were offered the Indians by the Government? Why 
was Kansas represented ? How did the Indians receive 
the conditions? When and where were the treaties 



KAILROADS ENTER INDIAN TERRITORY 59 

arranged with the Five Civihzed Tribes? In what 
respects did the treaties agree? How did they differ? 

Written Work. Write brief sketches of P. P Pitch- 
lynn, Winchester Colbert, John F. Brown, and D. N. 
Cooley. 

LESSON 15 

RAILROADS ENTER INDIAN TERRITORY 

During the Civil War the Federal Government 
was greatly hampered in sending supplies to the 
troops in the Territory. For this Right-of-way 
reason the United States insisted (1866) *° ^^aii^o^ds 
that railroads be. permitted to enter that region. 
According to the treaties made with the Chero- 
kees and Creeks, only two railroads were to be 
given a right-of-way across 'the lands of these 
nations. One was to be from north to south and 
the other from east to west. There were no such 
limitations in the treaties made with the Choc- 
taws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles. 

The first road to enter from the north was not 
only to have a right-of-way, but was to be given 
each alternate section of land for ten miles on each 
side of the track, provided this land should ever 
become public land of the United States. As a 



60 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

result of this offer a great race took place between 
two roads in Kansas, which were planning to build 
southward. These two roads were the Missouri, 
Kansas, and Texas, and the Leavenworth, Law- 
rence, and Galveston. The former reached the 
north line of the Territory first, June 6, 1870, and 
was granted the right-of-way. This road passes 
through Vinita, Muskogee, and McAlester and 
on into Texas. 

The first road to enter the Territory from the 

east was the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad (1871) 

which crossed the M. K. & T. at 

roadVSto Viuita and continued southwest to 

Indian Ter- j^^^j p^j,]. ^^^^ ^^^ Arkansas River. 

ntory 

This road is now part of the St. Louis 
and San Francisco line which has been built in a 
southwesterly direction through Oklahoma City 
and Lawton on into Texas. The first road to 
enter from the east was also to receive a land 
grant, provided the land along the track should 
become public domain. 

The roads never received the land as it never 
became the property of the United States. When 
allotted later to the members of the tribes, the 
land passed directly from each tribe to the members 
of the tribe. 



RAILROADS ENTER INDIAN TERRITORY 61 

No more railroads were built into the Indian 
Territory until the Atchison, Topeka, Later raii- 
and Santa Fe extended its line (1885- '"^^^^ 
1887) from Arkansas City, Kansas, through to 
Galveston, Texas. 

The next railroad was also a noi'th and south 
road, the Rock Island, which built (1889-1890) 
south from Caldwell, Kansas, to Fort Worth, 
Texas. 

The first east and west railroad to be completed 
through Oklahoma was the Choctaw, Oklahoma, 
and Gulf, now the Rock Island, which passes 
through Shawnee and Oklahoma City to Amarillo, 
Texas. 

This road reached Shawnee in 1895, and crossed 
the west line of the state in 1901. It will be 
noticed that all of the first railroads to cross the 
Territory were north and south roads. This had 
much to do with the character of the population 
of this state, a subject that will be discussed under 
another topic. 

Questions. Why was it difficult for the United 
States to get supplies into the Territory during the war ? 
What offer was made to railroads? What is a right-of- 
way ? What is meant by each alternate section of land ? 
What was the first railroad to cross the Territory from 



62 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

north to south? The first to enter from the east? 
Trace these roads, naming the cities along each. Have 
these roads received the land promised? Give the 
reason. Name the next two railroads to cross the 
Territory from north to south. Trace them, naming the 
present principal cities along them. When was each 
built? What was the first east and west railroad 
through the Territory? When built? Trace it, nam- 
ing the cities through which it passes. 

Written Work. Make a list of the railroads now in 
this state. What results usually follow the building of 
railroads through a new country? 



LESSON 16 



ATTEMPT TO FORM A TERRITORIAL 
GOVERNMENT 

One of the terms of the treaties made with the 
Indians in 1866 was that a territorial government 
should be formed for the Indian Territory. Dur- 
ing the session of Congress (1866-1867) immedi- 
ately following the making of the treaties, a bill 
was offered in Congress providing for a territorial 
government for Oklahoma, as it was proposed to 
call the Indian Territory. 

This name is said to have been suggested by 



ATTEMPT TO FORM A GOVERNMENT 63 



Colonel E. C Boudiuot of the Cherokee Nation. 
The name — Oklahoma — was first 
used to apply to this country when the homa^first^' 
Choctaw-Chickasaw treaty was made J^^'. 

^ Meaning 

in LS66. By that treaty the Super- 
intendent of Indian Affairs was to be governor of 
the Territory of Oklahoma. The name was prob- 
ably first mentioned by Allen Wright, a member 
of the Choctaw delegation. The word, which is 
Choctaw, means red people, or red people's land. 

The ]3ill to organize the Indian Territory failed 
to become a law. Similar 
])ills were offered in succeeding 
Congresses, only to meet the 
same fate. The Five Civi- 
lized Tribes were opposed to 
the organization of the Indian 
Territory into the Territory 
of Oklahoma, as proposed by 
Congress. The}^ were afraid 
it would result in ])ringing 
into their country grasping 
white men, who would eventually deprive them of 
their country. 

To forestall these attempts of Congress, the 
Indians decided to call a Council of the Tribes to 




Allen W right - 

TAW 



Choc 



64 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

meet at Okmulgee, December 5, 1870, for the 
Okmulgee purpose of forming a Confederation of 
Constitution ^^le tribes which would suit them better 
than the plans proposed by Congress. The Coun- 
cil appointed a committee of twelve to draw up 
a constitution for the union of the tribes. Wil- 
liam P. Ross, a nephew of John Ross, was chair- 
man of the committee. The constitution drawn 
up by this committee was submitted to the tribes 
for their approval. 

The Chickasaw legislature rejected the plan 
because it provided for representation in propor- 
tion to the population. That tribe, being smaller 
than some of the other tribes, favored giving each 
tribe equal power in the legislative body. This 
action of the Chickasaws defeated the Okmulgee 
constitution. On account of the continued oppo- 
sition of one party or another, the Indian Terri- 
tory was never organized. The Indian Territory, 
as it is generally called, was not really a territory. 
It was the Indian country or the region set apart 
for the Indians. It was not an organized political 
body. 

Questions. What was the agreement of the Indians 
in reference to government? When did Congress con- 
sider the matter? What name was proposed for the 



LOCATING OTHER TRIBES 65 

Territory? What kind of word is it? What does it 
mean? Who probably used the name first to apply 
to this country? In what document was it used? 
Why did the Indians hold a council at Okmulgee? 
What was the Okmulgee constitution? Which tribe 
acted upon it first? Why did that tribe reject it? 
What is a confederation? 

Written Work. Write sketches of WiUiam P. Ross, 
E. C. Boudinot, and Allen Wright. 



LESSON 17 

LOCATING OTHER TRIBES 

Another provision of the treaties of 1866 was 
that the Five Civilized Tribes should give up part 
of their lands for other Indians to be in the north- 
settled upon. February 3, 1867, the IflheVeS- 
United States made a joint treaty with ^^^^ 
the Seneca, Miami, Quapaw, Wyandotte, Ottawa, 
and Peoria tribes, and a band of the Shawnees, 
to remove them from their lands in Kansas to 
the Territory. They were settled in the north- 
eastern part, east of the Grand, or Neosho, River. 
The lands upon which they were placed did not 
belong to the Cherokees. 



66 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

In 1873 a hostile band of Modocs in southern 
Oregon treacherously slew General Canby and 
the other peace commissioners who were holding 
a parley with them. The band was captured, 
and their leader, Captain Jack, and three other 
men were hanged, and about one hundred and 
fifty of them were located in the northeastern part 
of the Territory near the Peorias. 

By the treaty with the Cherokees, the United 
States could settle peaceful Indians in the Chero- 
kee Nation proper, and could place wild tribes 
in the Cherokee Outlet or west of the 96th merid- 
ian. The Cherokees were not to give up any of 
this land until the Government was ready to place 
Indians upon it, and at that time the Cherokees 
were to be paid for it. 

In 1866 a band of Delawares and a band of 
Shawnees disposed of their lands in Kansas and 
On Cherokee bought of the Chcrokccs the right to 
lands become a part of that nation. They 

settled among the Cherokees east of the 96th 
meridian. The Osages (1870) ceded to the 
United States their lands in southern Kansas 
and purchased that part of the Cherokee Outlet 
east of the Arkansas River. 

The Kansas or Kaw Indians (1873) bought of 



LOCATINCJ OTHKR TRIBES 



67 



the Osages the northwest part of their resei'vation 
in the Cherokee Outlet and moved from Kansas 
to their present home. 

The Nez Perces, whose home was in Idaho and 
Oregon, waged war against the Government troops 
in 1878. Chief Joseph and his followers wej-e 
overcome after a long and diffi- 
cult struggle and were taken as 
prisoners to Fort Leavenworth, 
Kansas. They were located in 
the Cherokee Outlet within 
what is known as Kay County, 
They were very much dissatis- 
fied with their new home, and 
many of them died. Some of 
them returned to Idaho (1883), 
and the remainder were moved to a new resei- 
v-ation in Idaho in 1885. 

In 1884 the remnant of the Tonkawa tribe was 
moved from Texas and placed on the Nez Perces 
reservation. The Tonkawa w^as a Confederate 
Indian tribe which was attacked and driven from 
the Wichita Agency, in 1862, by Union Indians. 

The Poncas were moved from Nebraska to the 
Outlet and were placed on a reservation just west 
of the Arkansas River (1876). 




Chief Joseph 



68 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

The Pawnees came from central Nebraska to 
a reservation across the Arkansas River south of 
the Osages. The greater part of their lands was 
in the Cherokee Outlet, but they also received 
some land that had belonged to the Creeks, as their 
south line was the Cimarron River. 

Questions. What tribes were located in the north- 
eastern part of the Territory? Tell whether that 
land had ever belonged to the Cherokees. Name and 
locate the tribes settled upon Cherokee lands. Tell 
what states they were moved from. What was the 
Cherokee Outlet? What was the agreement between 
the United States and the Cherokees in reference to 
giving up lands to other Indians ? What tribe received 
both Cherokee and Creek lands? Locate the lands. 
What tribe was permitted to leave its reservation in the 
Territory? Why? Where was it given other lands? 
What tribe was given its land in the Territory? 

Written Work. Write an account of the Modoc War. 
Of the War with the Nez Perces. Write sketches of 
Chief Joseph, Captain Jack, General Canby, and Gen- 
eral Miles. 



LOCATING OTHER TRIBES GO 

LESSON 18 
LOCATING OTHER TRIBES (Concluded) 

The Creeks by treaty of 1866 sold the west half 
of their reservation, 3,250,560 acres, at thirty 
cents an acre, and the Seminoles sold all of their 
lands, 216,908 acres, at fifteen cents per acre. 
These lands were ceded at once to the United 
States to be used as settlements for friendly 
Indians. 

In 1867 the Sac and Fox, the tribe of the 
famous Black Hawk, was moved from Kansas 
to the eastern part of the lands just onCreek 
given up by the Creeks. The lowas ^^""^^ 
were moved from northeastern Kansas to a reser- 
vation west of the northern part of the Sac and 
Fox country (1876). The Kickapoos were moved 
from Kansas (1873) to a reservation south of the 
lowas, also on lands ceded by the Creeks. The 
Seminoles were given lands (1866) between the 
North and South Canadian rivers, which had been 
ceded to the United States by the Creeks. 

A band of Indians, known as the Absentee 
Shawnees, was moved from Kansas to a reser- 
vation west of the Seminoles (1866) ; part of this 



70 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

land had ])eeri ceded b}' the Creeks and part by 
the Seminoles. A band of Pottawatomies was 
moved from Kansas (1S6S) and settled with the 
Absentee Shawnees. 

By the terms of the Medicine Lodge Treaty 

(1867) the Cheyennes and the Arapahoes were 

2;iyen a lar^e tract of land between the 

Medicine ^ ^ ^ ^ 

Lodge Treaty, 98th and 100th meridians : part of their 
lands had been ceded to the United 
States by the Creeks, part by the Seminoles, and 
part by the Choctaws and Chickasaws. 

At the same Peace Council, held at Medicine 
Lodge in southern Kansas, a treaty was made 
with the Kiowas, Comanches, and Apaches, 
whereb}^ these tribes agreed to go on a reservation 
between the Red and the Washita rivers, west of 
the 98th meridian. 

In 1867 the Wichitas, Wacos, and a band of 
Delawares, also a few Anadarkos, returned to the 
Wichita Agency from southern Kansas, where they 
had been during the Civil War. The Caddos and 
the Keechis came to the same agency from Col- 
orado, where they had gone at the beginning of 
the war. The Wichitas and Caddos were assigned 
lands between the Canadian and the Washita 
rivers, west of the 98th meridian. 



LOCATING OTHER TRIBES 71 

The lands of all of the tribes attached to the 
Wichita Agency had formerly belonged to the 
Choctaws and Chickasaws and had been sold to 
the United States in 1(S66. The Choctaws re- 
ceived three-foui'ths of the money and the Chicka- 
saws one-fourth. The agency came to be called 
Anadarko about this time. 

In brief, one term of the treaties of 1866 was 
that the Five Tribes should give up part of their 
lands as settlements for other Indians. 

The Choctaws and Chickasaws sold their lands 
between the Red and Canadian rivers west of the 
98th meridian. On that land were located the 
Kiowas, Comanches, Apaches, Wichitas, Caddos, 
Keechis, Wacos, and a few Delawares and Ana- 
darkos. The Cheyennes and Arapahoes also 
occupied some of the Choctaw-Chickasaw lands 
as well as some that had belonged to the Seminoles 
and the Creeks. 

The Creeks had sold in 1866 the west half of 
their lands, on which had been placed the Iowa, 
Sac and Fox, the Kickapoo, and the Seminole 
tribes. 

The Seminoles had sold all of their lands. The 
Pottawatomies and a l^and of Shawnees had been 
placed on Creek and Seminole lands. The Paw- 



72 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

nees had some Creek lands, and the Cheyennes 
and Arapahoes had some Creek and Seminole 
lands. 

The Cherokees by treaty of 1866 sold lands, as 
the United States was ready to locate other 
Indians. A few Shawnees and a few Dela wares 
bought into the Cherokee tribe and became a 
part of that tribe. 

On the Cherokee Outlet were settled the Osages, 
Kaws, Pawnees, Poncas, Otoes and Missouris, 
Nez Perces, and the Tonka was. In the north- 
eastern part of the Territor}^ on unoccupied land 
were located the Quapaw, Peoria, Ottawa, Shaw- 
nee, Modoc, Wyandotte, and Seneca tribes. In 
the central part of the lands given up by the 
Creeks and Seminoles was a large tract that was 
never assigned to any other tribes. 

Questions. What difference was there in the terms 
made with the Five Tribes in reference to giving up 
lands? What tribes were located in the northeastern 
part of the Territory? Name and locate the tribes 
placed on Cherokee lands. Where was each moved 
from? Name the tribes located on Creek lands. 
On Choctaw and Chickasaw lands. On Creek and 
Seminole lands. On Cherokee and Creek lands. On 
Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek and Seminole lands. 



TROUBLE WITH THE PLAINS INDIANS 73 

State from where each tribe was moved. Tell where 
each was placed. Bound the tract not assigned to other 
Indians. 

Written Work. Write a sketch of the Nez Perces. 
Of the Tonkawas. Of Black Beaver. 



LESSON 19 
TROUBLE WITH THE PLAINS INDIANS 

During the Civil War the Federal Government 
could spare but few soldiers to guard the western 
frontier. As a consequence^ bands of Indians 
often raided the settlements, killing the settlers, 
carrying off women and children, and driving off 
stock. 

Among the whites during the days of chivalry 
it was considered necessary for a young man 
to win his spurs, so among the wild Indian tribes 
it was thought necessary for a young man to have 
a string of scalps at his belt in order to have proper 
standing in his tribe. 

There were also lawless white men along the 
frontier who thought all Indians were causes of 

1 1 rrn r • i Indian out- 

bad. these men oiten committed out- breaks 
rages which started the Indians on the war path. 



74 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



When the Civil War was over, many white men 
went west and settled upon lands which the In- 
dians claimed were theirs. 
Railroads were built across 
the plains, making it easier to 
ship supplies to the west and 
to ship hides from the plains. 
During the decade following 
the building of the first rail- 
road across the plains nearly 
all of the buffaloes were killed. 
Thousands were killed simply 
for their hides. Many people 
of the present time would be astonished to know 
how many buffalo hides were handled by one 
wholesale hide-house in Leavenworth, Kansas, 
(kning the seventies. 
Settling the West 
aroused the Indians. 




(JuANAH Parker, Chief 

OF THE COMANCHES 



and killing the buffaloes 
They gave the whites a 
great deal of trouble from 1867 to 1874. Treaties 
were made on the Little Arkansas River, in Kansas, 
in 1865, which were soon broken. Treaties were 
made at Medicine Lodge in 1867, the Indians 
agreeing to settle in the western part of Indian 
Territor}^ The Kiowas and Comanches, however, 
broke their agreement by raiding the settlements 



TROUBLE WITH THE PLALXS INDIANS 75 

in Texas, and the Cheyennes and Arapaho(\s also 
violated tluMrs l)y making forays into Kansas. 

The Indians would sixmuI the winters at army 
])osts and agencies whei-e th(^}' eoiild draw su])- 
plies from the Government ; then when the grass 
w^as good and the buffaloes fat, they would make 
their raids. Some of the Indians kept their 
treaties faithfully, but often the whole tribe was 
l)lamed for what the treacherous Indians did. 

One of the most noted Indian raids was that 
made b}^ the Cheyennes into the valley of the 
Solomon River, in Kansas, in August, Soiomon 
1868. Black Kettle was held responsi- Ri^^^^^id 
ble for this outrage. General Sheridan with 
General Custer moved south from Fort Dodge, 
Kansas, and established Camp Supply in the 
Indian Territory. A Kansas regiment under 
Colonel Crawford w^as to join the expedition. 
General Custer, without waiting for Crawford, 
moved south with the Seventh Cavahy to locate 
the Indian villages. They were found on the 
Washita River near the pi-esent location of 
Cheyenne. Without waiting for reenforcements, 
Custer attacked the Indian camp early Battle of the 
on the morning of November 27, 1868. Washita 
The Indians were taken by surprise, and Black 



76 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



Kettle and most of his warriors were killed and 
a number of women and children were captured. 
Custer withdrew when he learned that there were 
many other villages down the stream. Major 
Elliott and Captain Hamilton, a grandson of Alex- 
ander Hamilton, were killed; 
also nineteen other men. 
Later, three of the chiefs were 
captured and the Indians were 
brought to terms. Fort Sill 
was established in 1869 to 
guard against further upris- 
ings. 

In 1871 the Kiowas under 
Satanta made a raid into 
Texas, killing a number of men. He and two 
other chiefs were captured and the Indians quieted. 
In 1874 the Cheyennes made a raid through 
western Kansas. General Miles overtook them 
and brought them back. Fort Reno was estab- 
lished (1874) near the Cheyenne and Arapahoe 
agency (Darlington) to keep these Indians from 
committing further depredations. 

Questions. What caused the Indian troubles after 
the Civil War? What Indians raided in Kansas? 
Name one outrage. What Indians committed depreda- 




Gen. George A. Custer 



TROUBLE WITH THE PLAINS INDIANS 77 

tions in Texas? Name a chief who led one of these 
raids. Describe the Battle of the Washita. Where 
was it? What was the Seventh Cavalry? Locate 
Forts Supply, Sill, and Reno. When and why was each 
estabhshed ? What was Custer's last battle ? 

Written Work. Write an account of the killing of 
the buffaloes. Make a list of the places where buffaloes 
may be found now. Write sketches of Custer, Miles, 
Sat ant a, and Quanah Parker. 

Readings. '' Indian Fights and Fighters," by C. T. 
Brady. '' My Life on the Plains," by G. A. Custer. 
Biographies of General N. A. Miles and General G. A. 
Custer. 



PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT BY WHITES 



LESSON 20 

CONDITIONS BEFORE SETTLEMENT 

Within the large area, now Oklahoma, before it 
was settled by the whites, there were compara- 
T tively few people. While many In- 
ritory largely diaii tHbes and remnants of tribes had 
been moved into Indian Territory, in 
all the population was less than one hundred 
thousand. Most of the civilized Indians were 
gathered in groups in the eastern part. Gathered 
about agencies in the western part were bands of 
Indians, most of them uncivilized, who depended 
largely upon Government support. 

Very little of the country was being used by the 
Indians, even little hunting was done by them. 
The more civilized did some farming and stock 
raising. As the Indians no longer had slaves, 
on whom they had depended for labor, they began 
to permit white men to come in and lease the 
land for farming and stock raising. Usually but 

7S 



CONDITIONS BEFORE SETTLEMENT 79 

little rent was paid, and most of that went to a 
few corrupt Indians. Many of the white men 
married Indian women and became members of 
the tribe in order to avoid paying rent and to 
obtain the advantages of meml)ership in the 
tribe. After these white men gained entrance 
into the country, even as renters, it was very 
difficult to get rid of them, so their numbers 
gradually increased. 

Soon after the close of the Civil War, Texas had 
thousands of cattle to market. About this time 
a railroad reached central Kansas, and Driving cattle 
in 1866 cattlemen began to drive cattle ^^^"^ Texas 
from Texas to Abilene, Kansas, to be shipped to 
Chicago and other packing centers. Cattle driv- 
ing became so profitable that as high as six hun- 
dred thousand were driven north from Texas in 
a single year. Railroads in Kansas built south to 
secure the cattle for shipment. Cattle were 
driven to Dodge City, then to Wichita, and later 
to a number of places along the Kansas border, 
among which were Arkansas City, Caldwell, 
Kiowa, and Hunnewell. 

That was an interesting and characteristic day 
in the history of the West. In these cattle drives 
might be found a great variety of cowboys, as 



80 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

the cattle drivers were called. Many highly 
educated young men from good families would 
go to Texas to aid in driving cattle to a railroad 
point as a summer outing and then return to school 
or professional work in the fall. Some, tired of 
the strain of a business or professional life, would 
spend several years in the cattle drives and round- 
ups of this region. Withal there was an atmosphere 
of freedom and hospitalit}^ not found, perhaps, 
under any other circumstances. 

When the cattlemen found that the Indian 
country produced an abundance of nutritious 

grass and was well supplied with good 
ranches es- Water, they began to establish ranches 

in the unassigned lands and also in the 
Indian lands. At first they paid no rent, but as 
competition increased, they began to secure leases 
in order to hold their ranges. Cattlemen soon 
had control of practically all of the grass lands. 
Certain definite rules of the range were agreed 
upon. Large cattle companies were formed. 
The most important organization of its kind was 
the Cherokee Strip Live Stock Association which 
was formed March 6, 1883, at Caldwell, Kansas. 
This association leased the Cherokee Outlet, or 
Cherokee Strip as it was commonly known, from 



CONDITIONS BEFORE SETTLEMENT 81 

the Cherokees for a term of five years at $100,0()() 
per year. The land was then sublet to cattlemen 
at a much higher rate. During the second period 
of five years the Cherokees received $200,000 per 
year. 

The driving of cattle and the establishment of 
forts made it necessaiy to lay out trails. The 
Government supplies for the forts and for the 
Indian agencies had to be hauled from the nearest 
railroad points. The most noted trail was the 
Chisholm Trail, laid out in 1865 by Jesse Chis- 
holm from Wichita, Kansas, to Anadarko (Wichita 
Agency). This trail passed through Fort Reno 
and was extended to Fort Sill and later to Fort 
Worth, Texas. Trails led to the various forts 
and agencies. One branch of the Santa Fe Trail 
passed through the western part of the Panhandle. 
This trail was laid out in 1825. When railroads 
were extended into Texas, cattle driving in this 
countiy ceased. 

Questions. How many people lived in the Indian 
Territory before it was opened to white settlement? 
Where did the Indians live? How did they use the 
country? Why were whites admitted by the Indians? 
Why were cattle driven across this country? What 
can you say of the numbers driven ? What time of year 



82 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

were the drives ? To what points were they driven . 
What led to the estabhshing of ranches here? What 
important cattle association was formed? What led 
to the leasing of the grasslands? Why were trails laid 
out? Name the most noted trail. Trace it. 

Written Work. Write an account of the cattle 
drives. Describe a scene on the Chisholm Trail. 
Show that railroads often follow trails. 



LESSON 21 

THE FIRST OPENING 



A struggle was going on between two powerful 

forces^ — the cattlemen and the railroads. The 

cattlemen were opposed to the forma- 

Raiiroads fjon of a territorial government for 

favor, . ° 

cattlemen the Indian countr3\ A well-organized 
oppose, se e- gQy^j.j-^j^gj^^ would lead to develop- 
ment of the country. Development 
would bring in railroads, followed by settlers, 
which would destroy the ranges. The railroads 
would have more business with the country well 
settled. The railroads favored a territorial gov- 
ernment, favored allotting lands to the Indians, 
and opening the remaining lands to white settle- 
ment. 



THE FIRST OPENING 83 

T. C. Sears, an attorney for the Missouri, 
Kansas, and Texas railroad, is usually giyen credit 
for discoyering that a large tract of land in the 
Indian Territory was subject to homestead entry. 
Colonel E. C. Boudinot, a Cherokee la^\yer, was 
probably associated with him in looking up the 
status of the lands in question. The matter was 
made public in April, 1879. 

The tract of land was bounded on the north by 
the Cherokee Outlet, on the west b}' the Che3'enne 
and Arapahoe and the Wichita reserya- unassigned 
tions, on the south l^y the Canadian ^^"^^ 
Riyer, and on the east by the Pottawatomie, the 
Kickapoo, and the Iowa and the Pawnee reserya- 
tions. It was land that had been ceded to the 
United States by the Creeks and Seminoles, and 
had not been assigned to other Indians. It was 
claimed by these attorneys to be public land, and 
being public land, it was subject to homestead 
entry. 

Some of the friends of Dayid L. Payne claim 
that he originated the idea of opening this country 
to settlement. Though he proba]:)ly did not, 
yet he deseryes the credit of forcing the idea upon 
the attention of the public, which resulted in open- 
ing Oklahoma, as it was commonly known, to 



84 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



white settlement. From 1879 to 1884 he organized 
one colony after another and attempted to make 
settlement. Each time he and his followers were 
arrested and escorted out of the Territory by the 
United States troops, but they were not given 
trial. 

In 1884 Payne was indicted for conspiracy 
against the United States, but the indictment 
was quashed. Judge C. G. 

a^ Foster of the United States 
District Court at Topeka, 
Kansas, decided that the title 
to Oklahoma lands was vested 
in the United States, and that 
settlement upon them by citi- 
zens was not a crime. 
Payne's followers felt exul- 
tant. He began at once to 
organize another colony. While engaged in this 
work, he died suddenly, November 27, 1884, at 
Wellington, Kansas. 

The efforts of the Oklahoma boomers, as they 

were called, continued. William L. Couch, one 

of Payne's able assistants, took up 

W.L. Couch _ -^ ^ ^ , ^ ' ,^ 

his work. Before the close of the 
year (1884) he led a colony to a place near the 



Capt. David L. Payne 



THE FIRST OPENING 85 

present site of Stillwater. He, too, was forced 
to withdraw by the troops. In 1885 he made 
another attempt with the same result. 

During the year 1885 the Santa Fe began the 
construction of its line from Arkansas City, 
Kansas, south through Oklahoma ; and President 
Cleveland ordered the cattlemen to remove their 
fences from that country. The people, believ- 
ing that Oklahoma w^ould soon be thrown open to 
settlement, decided to wait until they could enter 
it legally. 

Efforts were made in Congress to pass a bill 
which would open the country to settlement, but 
the influence of the cattlemen and the The springer 
Indians was against it. Early in 1889 ^'" 
the Springer Bill passed the House of Representa- 
tives, but was defeated in the Senate. Just be- 
fore the close of the session of Congress, the bill 
providing for the opening of Oklahoma was 
attached to the Indian Appropriation Bill as a 
" rider '' and was passed by Congress. 

President Harrison issued a proclamation fix- 
ing the time of the opening at twelve o'clock, 
noon, April 22, 1889. No one w^as allowed to 
enter before that time. Any one who did so was 
not entitled to land and was known as a '^ sooner.'' 



86 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



On April 22, thousands of people were along the 
borders of the land ready to make a race for a 
quarter-section of land or for a town lot in one of 
the cities which were to be built. A signal was 
given at twelve o'clock, at which time the race 




Race for Land 



began. People raced on horseback, in carts, and 
in almost every conceivable wa3^ The Sante Fe 
ran trains on a slow schedule from the north and 
from the south. Cities sprang up, and the 
whole country was settled almost within an hour. 
On the evening of the first day there were perhaps 
fifteen thousand people in Guthrie and an equal 
number in Oklahoma City, while Kingfisher and 



THE FIRST OPENING 87 

El Reno were fulh' half as large, and Norman, 
Stillwater, and Edmond were cities of considerable 
size. There must have been almost one hundred 
thousand people in the Territory the first day. 
Some failed to get lands or lots and returned to 
their homes. Others soon became tired of the 
hardships and left the country. In 1890 Okla- 
homa had a population of 61,834. 

Questions. Why were the cattlemen opposed to 
opening Oklahoma ? Why did the railroads favor open- 
ing? Give the boundaries of Old Oklahoma. Who 
was T. C. Sears ? Why did he claim that the land could 
be settled? Who was D. L. Payne? Tell about his 
efforts. Who took up his work? What was the 
Springer Bill? What is a '' rider " to a bill? When 
was Old Oklahoma opened to settlement? Describe 
the opening. What cities were established? How 
many people were in the race? Why did they not all 
stay? What hardships had to be endured? What 
railroad was already through the country ? Trace it. 

Written Work. Write a description of the race for 
land. Give a picture of Oklahoma City on the evening 
of April 22, 1889. A picture of Guthrie. Give a sketch 
of D. L. Payne and W. L. Couch. 



88 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

LESSON 22 

THE FIRST ADDITION 

Now that the unassigned lands, Old Oklahoma, 
had been opened to settlement by the whites, 
there were two matters that demanded the atten- 
tion of Congress. One was that a government 
was needed for Oklahoma, the other, that some- 
thing should be done with the Public Land Strip, 
commonly known as ^^ No Man's Land." 

In forming the boundary lines of the states and 
territories adjacent to it, the Public Land Strip 
No Man's had been left unconnected with any of 
^*"^ them. It formed a part of no state or 

territoiy. It had no government, and there was 
no provision for its settlement. About the time 
the buffaloes had almost disappeared (1875) 
cattlemen began to occupy that region. Ten 
years later when settlers flocked to western 
Kansas and eastern Colorado, some also entered 
No Man's Land. 

But there was no provision for government, 
and as it was attached to no land district, the 
settlers could get no title to the land. Lawless 
men from adjoining states fled to it as a place of 



THE FIRST ADDITION 89 

refuge, and the honest settlers formed vigilance 
committees, and later a ^^ claim board." 

On March 4, 1887, a convention met at Beaver 
and organized Cimarron Territory. Some of 
the settlers believed it was necessaiy for ciman-on 
Congress to take action before a terri- territory 
toiy could be formed. They held a convention 
which petitioned Congress to form a government 
for the territory. They also elected a delegate to 
Congress. In this way the people became divided 
into two factions, and as a result failed to secure 
a territorial government. Cimarron Territory 
was never recognized by Congress, and No Man^s 
Land continued without legal government until 
it was made a part of Oklahoma Territoiy. 

Although Oklahoma was settled April 22, 1889, 
it had no legal government for more than a year. 
The people, however, were law abiding, and 
experienced no serious trouble on that account. 
In the cities governments were formed at once 
by mutual consent. As schools, roads, and other 
conveniences were needed, the people were anxious 
for Congress to act. Conventions were held 
and Congress was petitioned to form a territorial 
government. 

May 2, 1890, the Organic Act became a law, and 



90 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

Oklahoma Territory was authorized to form a 
The Organic territorial government. The act pro- 
^^^ vided for three branches of government, 

legislative, executive, and judicial ; also a delegate 
to Congress. The delegate to Congress was to be 
elected by the people. 

The legislative department, or Legislature, con- 
sisted of two houses, the upper or Council, com- 
posed of thirteen members, and the lower or 
House of Representatives, composed of twenty- 
six members. The members of both houses were 
to be elected by the people. 

The executive authority of the Territory was 
vested in a governor and a secretary, appointed 
by the President, with the approval of the Senate. 
The governor was given power to appoint other 
executive officers. 

The judicial power was vested in a Supreme 
Court consisting of a Chief Justice and two 
Associate Justices, appointed by the President 
and the Senate. 

The Organic Act also provided for the organi- 
zation of counties. Six were to be formed out 
of Old Oklahoma, while No Man's Land was 
to be the seventh. The counties were designated 
])y numbers until the people of each county se- 



THE FIRST ADlHTIOiV 1)1 

lected a name. Number 1 became Logan ; number 
2, Oklahoma; number 'S, Cleveland; number 
4, Canadian; number 5, Kingfisher; number 
6, Payne ; and number 7, Beaver. 

Questions. Locate and give dimensions of No 
Man's Land. Why was it so called? Tell how its 
boundaries were formed. When did people settle it? 
What right had they to go there? What kind of 
government had they? When did they first have a 
legal government? When was Oklahoma settled? 
When were the people first given a legal government? 
What did the people do for a government before that ? 
What was the Organic Act ? What branches of govern- 
ment were provided for? Of what did each consist? 
How many counties were formed? How were they 
designated at first? What names were given them? 
By whom ? 

Written Work. Write an account of the way you 
think the people in each city founded a city government. 
Tell how you would account for the names of the first 
seven counties. 



92 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



LESSON 23 

IOWA, SAC AND FOX, AND POTTAWATOMIE 
OPENING 

When Congress in 1889 provided for the open- 
ing of Oklahoma to settlement, it also authorized 
the President to appoint a Commission to arrange 
for the return of surplus Indian lands to the 
United States. This commission was 
to'^hasT to induce the Indians of Indian Ter- 
fands^^ ritoiy to sell their surplus lands west 

of the 96th meridian. If the Indians 
lived east of that meridian, it was hoped that 
they would sell what land they had west of that 
line. If the Indians lived west of that line, they 
were to be urged to take allotments and to sell 
the remainder. 

President Harrison appointed three commis- 
sioners, and they first tried to induce the Chero- 
kees to sell all of that part of the Outlet which 
had not already been sold to other Indians. They 
made slow progress with the Cherokees. They 
were more successful with the lowas. Sacs and 
Foxes, Pottawatomies, and Shawnees. These 
Indians accepted allotments of one hundred and 



IOWA, SAC AND FOX OPENING 93 

sixty acres each and sold their surplus lands to 
the United States. 

These reservations were thrown open to settle- 
ment September 22, 1891. People were allowed 
to run for claims as they had at the Two new 
opening of Old Oklahoma, as people <^°"^ties 
now designated it. Each settler was allowed to 
file upon one quarter-section of land. Each 
Indian first selected his allotment, then sections 
16 and 36 were set apart as school land. The 
settlers could take what still remained. Out of 
this addition to Oklahoma two new counties were 
formed, and additions were made to Payne, Logan, 
Oklahoma, and Cleveland counties. The new 
counties were designated by letters A and B. 
The people of A county afterwards selected the 
name Lincoln and the people of B county chose 
Pottawatomie. 

An addition was made to Payne County from 
the north part of the Iowa and the Sac and Fox 
reservations. A strip six miles wide from the 
west side of the Iowa and the Pottawatomie 
reservations was added to Logan, Oklahoma, 
and Cleveland counties. This six-mile strip was 
the first row of townships east of the Indian 
Meridian. 



94 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

The Indian Meridian is a line running north 
and south from which all of the land in the present 
Indian state of Oklahoma (except No Man's 

Meridian Land) is surveycd. It will be seen 
from the above that it is six miles west of 
the east line of Cleveland^ Oklahoma^ and Logan 
counties. 

Questions. What provision was made in 1889 for 
allotting lands? What is an allotment? How many 
acres in a quarter-section? What is meant by school 
land? What land did the Commissioners want the 
Cherokees to sell? How did they succeed with that 
tribe? What tribes agreed first to sell their surplus 
lands? What is meant by surplus lands? When did 
the second opening take place? How was it opened? 
How many new counties were formed? What were 
they called at first? What name was given each? 
What counties received additions at this time? What 
is the Indian Meridian ? Where is it ? 

Written Work. Show how Pottawatomie County, 
its county seat, and its largest city were well named. 
Write a sketch of Black Hawk. 



CHE\7^NNE AND ARAPAHOE COUXTHY 95 
LESSON 24 

CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHOE COUNTRY 

The Cheyenne and Arapahoe tribes had been 
settled on lands ceded to the United States b}" the 
Creeks, the Seminoles, and the Choc- 
taws and Chickasaws. Their lands cheyenneand 
extended from the 98th meridian and Arapahoe 

country 

the Wichita country on the east to 

the 100th meridian, and from the Cherokee 

Outlet to the Kiowa, Comanche, and Wichita 

countries. 

These Indians belonged to the wild tribes of the 
plains. They had been used to roaming over a 
large part of the plains. They were not satisfied 
to remain on a reservation. Their depredations 
in Kansas led to their punishment at the Battle 
of the Washita (186(S), and their outbreak and 
raid in LS74 l^rought on the campaign of General 
Miles, by which he brought them into subjection. 
They caused no more uneasiness until 1885, when 
an outbreak seemed imminent. Ceneral Sheridan, 
who was sent to cjuiet them, reported to President 
Cleveland that the Indians would not remain 
quiet as long as the cattlemen held the country. 



90 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

The President ordered the cattlemen removed 
within forty days. 

The commissioners chosen for that purpose 
arranged with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes 
Opening to take allotments and to dispose of 
AprUiQ. 1892 ^j^g-j. gujpius lands. After the allot- 
ments were taken and sections 16 and 36 reserved 
for the common schools, the remainder was thrown 
open to settlement April 19, 1892. People ran 
for the land as in the first opening. In the eastern 
part the race was exciting, but many thought the 
western part of the country not worth running 
for. It was afterward settled gradually as people 
learned its value. 

Six new counties were formed, and additions 
were made to Kingfisher and Canadian counties. 
The counties were designated by letters and named 
later by the people. C County was named 
Blaine ; D, Dewey ; E, Day ; F, Roger Mills ; 
G, Custer ; H, Washita. 

Day County was afterward done away with 
by the State Constitutional Convention, — part 
of it was attached to Ellis and part to Roger 
Mills County. The Convention also took the 
south part of the original Roger Mills County 
and the north part of Greer County, and formed 



CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHOE COUNTRY 97 

Beckham County. The commissioners had so 
far completed arrangements with the Wichita 
Indians that they planned to have that reservation 
ready for settlement at the time of the Cheyenne 
and Arapahoe opening. The Wichita country 
was even called I County. Some of the Indians 
objected, and the opening of the reservation was 
delayed until the Kiowa and Comanche opening. 

Questions. When were the Cheyennes and Ara- 
pahoes placed on their reservation? Where had their 
homes previously been? What kind of Indians were 
they? Locate their reservation in Oklahoma. When 
was it opened to settlement? By what plan? How 
many new counties were formed? How were they 
designated ? Give name of each, adopted by the people. 
Locate each county. What county has since been 
eliminated? By whom? What other change was 
made at the same time? What counties received 
additions from this same opening? Name the county 
seat of each county. What was I County? 

Written Work. Write a description of the Darling- 
ton Agency. Of Fort Reno. Draw a map of the 
Cheyenne and Arapahoe country. 



98 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

LESSON 25 

OPENING OF THE CHEROKEE OUTLET 

The Cherokee Outlet, commonly known as the 
Cherokee Strip, was a large tract of land fifty- 
Location of eight miles wide, and extending from 
^"*^^* the 96th to the 100th meridian. It 

adjoined Kansas on the south, and was given to 
the Cherokees as an outlet for them to pass over 
to the Rocky Mountains to hunt. They made 
no use of it as an outlet. 

In compliance with the treaty of 1866, they had 
disposed of parts of it to the Osages, Kaws, 
Nez Perces, Poncas, Otoes and Missouris, and 
Pawnees. 

The commissioners in arranging for its opening 
also negotiated with the Pawnees, and with the 
Tonkawas, who had taken the reservation of the 
Nez Perces. The Cherokees took no allotments 
as they had plenty of land in the Cherokee Nation 
proper. • The Pawnees and Tonkawas took allot- 
ments. 

Sections 16 and 36 were reserved for the com- 
mon schools, section 13 for territorial (now state) 
educational institutions, and section 33 for public 



OPENING OF THE CHEROKEE OUTLET 99 

buikliiigs. Two ixxls were reserved on each side 
of eveiy section line for highways, thus fixing 
a road four rods wide on eveiy sec- Lands ra- 
tion hne. "^^^^ 

The Cherokees were paid $8,300,000 for the 
Outlet, and the Pawnees and Tonka was were 
paid $110,000 for their surplus land. 

The land in the eastern part of the Outlet was 
considered more valuable, and it decreased in 
value toward the west. For this rea- Three land 
son the Outlet was divided into three ^^s*"^*^ 
divisions. The settlers in the eastern division 
wTre to pay two dollars and a half an acre for the 
land when final proof was made, the settlers in 
the central division were to pa}^ one dollar and a 
half per acre, and those in the western division 
were to pay one dollar per acre. 

Before the land was settled it was divided into 
counties which were designated by letter, a half- 
section was laid off for each county seat, and each 
county seat was named. Land offices were also 
established : one for the eastern district at Periy, 
one for the central district at Enid, and one for 
the western district at Woodward. 

At the former openings there had been so much 
trouble on account of '' sooners " that a plan for 



100 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

registering was devised. All who desired claims 
were compelled to register and receive a certifi- 
cate before the day of the opening, which was 
September 16, 1893. Registration booths were 
established along the borders of the Outlet, and 
registering began in the latter part of August. 
The summer had been dry and hot ; much of the 
grass had been burned. Thousands of people 
gathered about some of the booths. 

Registration • r« i i i» i 

Many had to wait for days before they 
could register. At first they had to stay in line 
all day, and even the first night. Many, unable 
to stand the heat or to hire some one to get them 
water, had to drop out of line and lose their turn 
to register. Then a scheme of numbering was 
devised, which was recognized by the registration 
officers at most of the booths. This was one of 
the most trying experiences that the homeseekers 
had to endure. The author of these lines is speak- 
ing from personal experience. And yet all this 
work came to naught, as people were permitted 
to file without these certificates. 

On the day before the opening people gathered 
along the line. All were anxious to be fully 
prepared for the race. Most of those who wanted 
farms were to make the race on horseback. Swift 



OPENING OF THE CHEROKP]E OUTLET 101 

horses had been secured hj those who were able. 
Horses and ponies were trained and toughened 
for the run by days of practice. Some had 
planned to make the race in carts, others in buggies 
Bicycles were brought into use, and 




Registration Scene, Orlando, August, 1893 

vehicles made especially for the race. It would 
he a long story to tell all of the ways. One man, 
near the writer, had his team hitched to a break- 
ing plow, ready, when the signal should be given, 
to begin his fall plowing. It might be said here 
that the. man with the plow got the claim where 
he started to plow, and it was a good one. 
Just before the signal was given everybody 



102 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

along the line became intensel}^ quiet. All eyes 
were turned toward a soldier with a gun, who was 
The greatest ^o fire a shot as a signal. The smoke 

race for land q£ ^^l^ g^j^ ^^g ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^le SOUud 

was never heard, for the race was on. Horses 
and men dashed forward as if their lives depended 
on the race. Only those who participated in such 
a race can fully appreciate or understand such an 
event. Thousands made the race by train. 
A regular schedule was adopted, and the train 
stopped at regular intervals. Men and women 
packed the cars inside, and men covered the tops 
of the coaches and hung on wherever they could. 
This was the greatest of all the races. People 
ran not only for farms, but for lots in the cities. 
Perry and Enid were expected to become the 
largest cities. 

There were three railroads through the Outlet : 
the Santa Fe, south from Arkansas City; the 
Rock Island, south from Caldwell ; and the Pan- 
handle division of the Santa Fe which entered 
the Outlet at Kiowa and passed through Wood- 
ward to the Panhandle of Texas. 

Out of this domain were formed Pawnee, Kay, 
Noble, Grant, Carfield, Woods, and Woodward 
counties, and a small addition was made to 



OPENINC; OF TH1-: CIIEROKEK OUTLET 103 

Payne County. Woods and Woodward counties 
were afterward divided by the Constitutional 
Convention which formed the state constitution. 

Questions. Locate and give dimensions of the ('her- 
okee Outlet. What do people usually call the Outlet? 
What Indian tribes were settled in it after 1866 ? What 
tril)e was permitted to leave it? What tribe was put 
in its place*? What reservations were opened at the 
time of the Cherokee opening? What were the Chero- 
kees paid for their interest? How much was given 
the other tribes ? What Indians received allotments ? 
What lands w,ere reserved ? Why was the land divided 
into land districts? Into how many? Where were 
land offices established? What is a land office? Why 
were the settlers required to register? How well did 
it serve its purpose ? What railroads were in the Outlet 
at that time? Trace them. What counties were 
formed? Which of them have been changed? By 
whom ? 

Written Work. Write a description of a registration 
scene. Of a race scene. Of a scene at a land office. 
Draw a map of the Outlet, showing the counties formed 
and the Indian reservations which still remained. 



104 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



LESSON 26 

THE KICKAPOO COUNTRY AND GREER 
COUNTY 

The home of the Kickapoos was originally near 
the Great Lakes. They were forced from one 
state to another until they were located in Kansas, 
where some of them took allotments and became 
citizens. Some of the Kickapoos, disliking the 
treatment they received at the hands of the people 
of the United States^ went to Mexico, where they 
became troublesome by raiding along the borders. 
Some of them returned to the United States 
and were given land that had been ceded by 
the Creeks. Their reservation was south of the 
lowas between the North Canadian and the 
Deep Fork rivers. 

Before their country was opened to settlement, 
the Kickapoos took allotments, and about one- 
Kickapoo half of the reservation was set apart as 
opening school lauds to indemnify the Territory 

(now state) for the loss of sections 16 and 36 in 
the Osage and Kaw reservations. As those two 
tribes owned all their lands, the Territory never 
expected to get the usual school sections in their 



KICKAPOO COUNTRY AND GREER COUNTY 105 

reservations. The opening took place May 23, 
1895, and was on the race plan. The race, 
as a whole, was not exciting, as so much of 
the land had been reserved. Their lands were 
attached to Oklahoma, Lincoln, and Pottawatomie 
counties. 

By the treaty made between the United States 
and Spain in 1819 the boundary lines between 
our countr}^ and the Spanish possessions in North 
America commenced at the mouth of „ 

Boundary 

the Sabine River, continuing up that treaty with 
stream to the 32° north latitude, ^^^"'^ ^^ 
then north to the Red River, then up that stream 
to the 100th meridian, then north to the Arkansas 
River, then up that stream to the 42° north lati- 
tude, then west to the Pacific Ocean. 

In 1821 Mexico gained her independence from 
Spain, and the boundaiy lines mentioned became 
the boundary between the United States and 
Mexico. When Texas became independent from 
Mexico in 1836, the same lines separated our 
countiy from Texas. AVhen Texas became a 
state, the same line was recognized as her eastern 
and northern boundary. 

It will be remembered that our explorers 
experienced considerable difficulty in tracing the 



106 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

Red River to its source. Marcy in 1852, in 
going up the stream, followed the North Fork 
Greer County to its source, then Searched for the 
decision source of the South Fork. The fact 

that Marcy mistook the North Fork for the main 
stream gave Texas some reason for claiming that 
stream to be the boundary to the 100th meridian 
rather than the South Fork. 

Later discoveries seemed to prove the South 
Fork to be the main stream. In 1890 Congress 
authorized the Attorney-General to institute 
suit against Texas in the Supreme Court of the 
United States, to gain possession of Greer County, 
claiming the south fork of the Red River to be 
the main stream. The Supreme Court decided 
in favor of the United States. In May, 1896, 
Congress attached Greer County to Oklahoma. 
It continued as Greer County, Oklahoma, until 
statehood, when it was divided by the Constitu- 
tional Convention into Jackson and Greer coun- 
ties, and the north part was made a part of 
Beckham County. More recently Harmon 
County was formed from Greer Count}^ 

Questions. What was the original home of the Kick- 
apoos? Where did part of the tribe take allotments? 
Why did some of the tribe leave the United States? 



THE KIOWA AND COMANCHE OPENING 107 

Where did they go? Where were they located later? 
When were their lands opened to settlement? Their 
reservation was added to what counties? Why was 
such a large part of the land reserved? What is in- 
demnity school land ? Trace the boundary line agreed 
to by the treaty with Spain in 1819. Why did Texas 
claim Greer Count}^? Who found the source of the 
Red River? When? When was suit brought to test 
the ownership of Greer County? Upon what did the 
question depend? How was it decided? When at- 
tached to Oklahoma ? What counties were formed from 
it? 



LESSON 27 

THE KIOWA AND COMANCHE OPENING 

The countiy belonging to the Kiowas, Coman- 
ches, Apaches, and Wichitas, was the last great 
tract in Oklahoma to be opened to Lands re- 
settlement. It had formerly he- ^®^^®^ 
longed to the Choctaws and Chickasaws, and had 
been ceded by them to the United States in 1866. 
It extended from the 98th meridian west to 
Greer County, and from the Red River north to 
the Canadian River and to the Cheyenne and 
Arapahoe country. 



108 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

Lands were allotted to the Indians and sections 
16 and 36, and 13 and 33 were reserved, also cer- 
tain pasture lands, one known as the Big Pasture. 
The remainder was open to settlement. 

Opening lands to settlement by the race plan 
had not been satisfactor}^ The desire for land 
had become so great that many persons would 
resort to unfair means to gain it. By the race 
plan many persons were hurt, and horses were 
run until many dropped dead. Contests and 
other difficulties arose. 

It was decided in this opening to try another 

plan. The land was divided into two 

for^drawinl districts with a registration office for 

at El Reno, ^^^^i. The officc for the north district 

July, 1 901 

was at El Reno, and the office for the 
south district was at Fort Sill. 

Persons wanting land were required to go to 
the office of the district in which they wished 
Method of the to Settle and register, and at the same 
drawing ^^^-^^ msike oath that they were entitled 

to take land under the Homestead Law. Each 
person's name was placed in a plain, unmarked 
envelope and sealed. The envelopes were put 
in a large box that could be turned around like a 
wheel so as to mix them thoroughly. They were 



THE KIOWA AND COMANCHE OPENING 109 

then drawn out one at a time. The person whose 
name was drawn out first at El Reno was allowed 
to file first on any land in the north district. The 
person whose name was drawn out first at Fort Sill 
was allowed to file first on any land in the south 




Registering for the Drawing at El Reno 



district. The first name drawn at Fort Sill was 
James Wood ; the second, Mattie Beal. 

The drawing w^as not a lottery. No one drew 
a claim and no one drew a blank. The drawing 
was simply to decide the order of filing. When 
Mr. Wood's name was draw^n at Fort Sill, it 
meant that he had the right to file first on land in 



110 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

that district. Had he chosen not to file at all. 
he would have received no land. 

Registration began at each of the offices July 
9, and the drawings began July 29, eight days 
Opening bcforc the opening, which was August 

August 6,1901 g When a person's name was drawn 
out of the box, he was notified, and he could go 
into the country and pick out land that he wanted. 

The act of Congress providing for the opening 
divided the country into three counties and named 
them Caddo, Comanche, and Kiowa. It also 
set apart one half-section of land in each county 
for a county seat, and named each. 

Lots in the county seat were staked off, and 
beginning with the day of the opening they were 
Lots sold at sold at public auction to the highest 
auction bidder. The mone}^ received from 

the sale of the lots was used for building court- 
houses, school buildings, bridges, and other 
public works. One hundred and sixty thousand 
persons registered, about six for every claim. 

Questions. Locate the Kiowa, Comanche, and 
Wichita country. What lands were reserved? Why 
were the openings on the race plan objectionable? 
How many land districts were there? Where w^as the 
office of each? At how many places did the draw- 



BIG PASTURE AND OTHER ADDITIONS 111 

ings take place? How were the drawings conducted? 
What was the purpose of the drawing? When did 
registration begin? When did the drawings begin? 
When did the filing begin? How many counties were 
formed ? Name them. What were their county seats ? 
How^ were the lots disposed of? What was done with 
the money? 

Written Work. Write an account of the drawing at 
El Reno. Describe the lot sale at Lawton. Write the 
story of Geronimo. 



LESSON 28 

BIG PASTURE AND OTHER ADDITIONS 

The Kiowa and Comanche country was the last 
great tract of land in Oklahoma to be thrown open 
to white settlement. There was still one tract 
of considerable size to be settled that was known 
as the Big Pasture. Then there were a few In- 
dian tribes whose tribal governments were to be 
brought to an end and their lands placed under 
county government. 

The lands of the Kaws, Poncas, and the Otoes 
and Missouris were divided among the member- 
ship of each tribe, and their reservations were 
attached to and made a pai't of Kay, Noble, 



112 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

and Pawnee counties. All of their lands were 
Kaw Ponca distributed among the Indians, none 
and Otoe- being Opened to white settlement. 

Missouri -...-.. 

tribes ended, The distribution was completed, and 
^^^"^ their tribal governments ceased in 1904. 

The Big Pasture was a large tract of land in 
the southern part of Comanche County that had 
Big Pasture bccu rcscrved by the Kiowas and 
opening, 1906 Coinanches for pasture land. Later, 
they decided to sell it, and it was opened to settle- 
ment in 1906. The Government sold it for the 
Indians. It was sold to the highest bidder by 
sealed bids. The settlers were required to have 
the qualifications of homesteaders. Each per- 
son was allowed to bid upon several tracts not to 
exceed one hundred sixty acres each, but. he was 
allowed to take only one. Part of the purchase 
price had to be inclosed with each bid. The 
purchaser was to pay for the land in five equal 
payments. At the time of the opening the land 
was included in Comanche County, now part of 
it is included in Tillman County. 

The Osage Nation was included in Oklahoma 
Territory for court purposes in 1893, but it was 
not opened to white settlement. They were the 
last Indians in Oklahoma to receive their lands 



BIG PASTURE AND OTHER ADDITIONS 113 

in severalty. All of their land was divided among 
the members of the tribe ; none of it was opened 
to settlement by the whites. The 

Osage Nation 

Osages are thought by some to be the 
richest people in the world. There are only a 
few more than two thousand of them. At the 
beginning of statehood the Osage Nation was 
formed into one county, Osage County. 

It will be seen that Oklahoma was settled un- 
like any other state. 

1. The unassigned lands (Old Oklahoma) set- 
tled by race for claims, April 22, 1889. 

2. The Public Land Strip (No Man's Land) 
added by the Organic Act, May 2, 1890. 

3. Iowa; Sac and Fox, and Pottawatomie- 
Shawnee reservations by the race plan, Septem- 
ber 22, 1891. 

4. Cheyenne and Arapahoe country by race 
plan, April 19, 1892. 

5. Cherokee Outlet (Strip), by race, September 
16, 1893. 

6. Kickapoo countr}^, by race. May 23, 1895. 

7. Greer County, by act of Congress, May 4, 
1896. 

8. Kiowa-Comanche country by drawing, 
August 6, 1901. 



114 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

9. Kaw, Ponca, and Otoe-Missouri reservations, 
by ending tribal governments and attaching land 
to counties, 1904. 

10. Big Pasture, by sealed bids, in 1906. 

11. Osage Nation made a part of Oklahoma for 
court purposes, 1893 ; made a county, 1907. 

12. The Indian Territory, including the lands 
belonging to the Five Civilized Tribes and the 
smaller tribes east of the Grand River, was made 
a part of the state of Oklahoma, by statehood, 
1907. 

Questions. Locate the first tract in Oklahoma that 
was opened to settlement. What was it called? How 
many counties were formed? Name them. What 
was the first addition to Oki Oklahoma? How was it 
added ? Give its previous history. What was the next 
opening? When? How? What new counties? 
Name the next addition, giving time and manner of 
opening. Name the counties and parts added to coun- 
ties. What was the greatest opening ? Give time and 
manner of opening. What new counties? Name, and 
give time and manner of next opening. Why was it 
not an exciting race ? What is indemnity school land ? 
What county was added, having already been an organ- 
ized county ? Give its history. What opening in 1901 ? 
Describe the manner of opening. Name the counties 
and tell how they were formed and named. How were 
the county seats opened? Give time and manner of 



y 



BIO PASTURE AND OTHER ADDITIONS 115 

adding the Kaw, Ponca, and Otoe-Missouri lands. Tell 
how and when the Big Pasture was settled. How and 
when was the Osage Nation added ? The Indian Terri- 
tory? 

Written Work. Write an account of the growth of 
Oklahoma in area. Draw a map of Oklahoma, showing 
openings and additions. 



PERIOD OF TERRITORIAL 
GOVERNMENT 



LESSON 29 

CLASSES OF TERRITORIES 

As the word '^ territory " is used with different 
meanings, it is well to explain the different ways 
in which it is used in this history of Oklahoma^ and 
to understand also the different classes of terri- 
tories in the United States. 

The first territory organized under the govern- 
ment of the United States was the Northwest 
The first Territory, which was organized by 

territory Cougrcss uudcr the Articles of Con- 

federation. Its Organic Act was called the Ordi- 
nance of 1787. Its form of government has 
served as a model for other territorial governments 
formed since then. 

The Constitution of the United States (Art. IV, 
Sec. 3) gives Congress the power to ^' make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the terri- 
tory belonging to the United States." Under 

116 



CLASSES OF TERRITORIES 117 

this authority Congress has organized territories 
and made provisions for the government of the 
lands belonging to our country. 

The word '' territor}^ " in its broadest sense 
simply means lands without any reference to 
government. Territories with refer- classes of 
ence to government ma}^ ])e divided territories 
into the following classes : unorganized, partially 
organized, fully organized, and subject possessions. 

Unorganized territory means lands, largely 
unsettled, that have no government. An example 
would he the lands ceded by Mexico to the United 
States in 1848, which were organized into the 
territories of Utah and New Mexico by the Com- 
promise Bill of 1850. Between 1848 and 1850 
this region was unorganized territory. 

A fully organized territory is one which has 
been given by Congress a complete government 
consisting of three branches, — legislative, exec- 
utive, and judicial, — and which is allowed a 
delegate in the lower house of Congress. Hawaii 
is an example. Oklahoma Territory was fully 
organized just before statehood. 

A partially organized territory may be organized 
in different degrees. Congress might provide 
for it executive and judicial branches only, as was 



118 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

the case in Alaska for several years. In such a 
case Congress would make the laws. A territory 
might be given legislative, executive, and judicial 
branches, but allowed no delegate in Congress. 
In all cases where the territory is organized, yet 
has not all of the four elements necessary for a 
fully organized territory, it is said to be partially 
organized. 

Congress has the power to change the govern- 
ment of territories, even to taking away the 
government given them, as was done in the case 
of the District of Columbia. 

Subject possessions are those territories or lands 
belonging to the United States and yet not a part 
of the country in the fullest sense, — Porto Rico 
and the Philippine Islands are examples. 

When Congress provided for the establishment 

of an Indian country or territory (1830), and set 

apart a large domain west of Arkansas 

Territory and MissouH for the Indians, that 

unorganized ... . i ^tti. 

territory was unorganized. When 
states and territories had been carved out of that 
tract, making the Indian Territory include all of 
what is now Oklahoma (except the Panhandle), 
the territor}^ was still unorganized. After settle- 
ments had been made in the western half, and 



TRIBAL GOVERNMENT 119 

Oklahoma Territory formed, the Indian Territory, 
or eastern half, was still an unorganized territory. 
It is true that courts were provided to settle diffi- 
culties and a commission was provided to deal 
with the Indians, but there was no corporate or 
political organization known as the Indian Ter- 
ritory. 

Questions. What was the first territory formed by 
the United States? Who has the power to form terri- 
tories? Quote authority. Name the classes of terri- 
tories. Explain each class and give an example of each. 
To which class did the Indian Territory belong? Okla- 
homa Territory? What is a corporation? A pubhc 
corporation ? Tell whether the Indian Territory had a 
capital. 

Written Work. Write a sketch of the Indian Ter- 
ritory. 



LESSON 30 

TRIBAL GOVERNMENT 

Upon their removal to the Indian Territory the 
Five Civilized Tribes were permitted to govern 
themselves. The Eastern and Western Cherokee 
Cherokees united and adopted a con- government 
stitution in 1839 and made Tahlequah their capi- 



120 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



tal. After the Civil War it was necessary for 
them to make some changes in their constitution, 
which they did in 1866. 

Their government was modeled after that of a 
state, and consisted of legislative, executive, and 




Cherokee Capitol, Tahlequah, Oklahoma 

judicial departments. The legislative power was 
vested in the National Council, which consisted 
of two houses, the senate and the council. The 
nation was divided into nine districts ; the number 
had been eight. The senate consisted of two 
members from each district. Each district was 
allowed two members in the council, and addi- 
tional members according to voting population. 



TRIBAL GOVERNMENT 121 

The members of both houses were elected by the 
people. Male citizens eighteen years of age were 
allowed to vote. 

The chief executive authority was vested in a 
Principal Chief elected by the voters for a term 
of four years. Other important executive officers 
were Assistant Principal Chief, National Treas- 
urer, and editor of the Cherokee Advocate. 

The judicial power w^as vested in a Supreme 
Court, Circuit Courts, and District Courts. The 
Supreme Court consisted of three judges chosen 
by the National Council. 

The Creek government was not a very advanced 
form until they adopted a written constitution in 
1867. Their new government pro- creek 
vided for a Principal Chief, who was government 
elected by the people for a term of four years. 
The legislative power was vested in a National 
Council, consisting of a House of Kings and a 
House of Warriors. The Nation was divided 
into forty-eight clans; each clan had a member 
in the upper house. There were twice as many 
members in the lower house. Okmulgee was the 
capital of the Creek Nation. 

WTien the Seminoles were moved west, the}' were 
settled with the Creeks. The idea of the Govern- 



122 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



ment was for them to become part of that Nation. 
The Seminoles were dissatisfied, and the Govern- 
ment arranged for them to have separate lands and 
government of their own. At first their govern- 
ment was much like that of the Indians before 




Creek Capitol, Okmulgee, OklahoiMa 



they came in contact with the whites. When their 
nation was reorganized after the Civil War, they 
adopted the ideas of the other civilized nations. 

Their most important executive officers were 
Seminole ^ Principal Chief and a Treasurer, 
government elcctcd by the pcoplc. They also had 
a superintendent of schools. Their council con- 



TRIBAL GOVERNMENT 



123 



sisted of but one house, made up of leaders of 
their fourteen elans. Wewoka was the capital 
of the Seminole Nation. 

The Choctaw country, before 1855, was divided 
into four districts, one of which the Chickasaws 




Chickasaw Capitol, Tishomingo, Oklahoma 



occupied. Each district elected a Principal Chief, 
and these four chiefs formed the executive de- 
partment of the Choctaw-Chickasaw peoples. 



124 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

After the Chickasaws were given a separate dis- 
choctaw trict and government, the Choc taws 
government adopted a constitution more like that 
of a state government. It provided for a Prin- 
cipal Chief at the head of the executive depart- 
ment and a council consisting of two houses. 
The capital of the Nation was Tuskahoma. 

The Chickasaws, after their withdrawal from 
the Choctaws, adopted a constitution quite like 
Chickasaw that of the government of a state, 
government xhcir chicf cxccutive was a Principal 
Chief. The legislative power was vested in a 
council composed of two houses. In the upper 
house were twelve members, and in the lower 
house twenty members. The capital of the 
Nation was Tishomingo. 

The development of the government of the Five 
Civilized Tribes from a primitive form to the 
present advanced state government is an excep- 
tionall}^ interesting stud}^ In a comparatively 
short time they have passed from the days of 
unwritten laws, when the powers of government 
were largely in the hands of chiefs, to a time when 
the government is largely in the hands of the 
people. The changes have been gradual. They 
have passed through a training school of experience. 



DAWES COMMISSION AND CURTIS ACT 125 

Questions. When and where did the Cherokee 
Nation unite? Why did the Five CiviUzed Tribes 
need to change their constitutions after the Civil War ? 
Why did the Seminoles separate from the Creeks? 
The Chickasaws from the Choctaws? What is meant 
by executive department ? By legislative department ? 
By judicial department? Compare the executive de- 
partments of the Five Civilized Tribes. The legislative 
departments.* The judicial departments. Where did 
these Indians get their ideas of government? Name 
and locate the capital of each nation. 

Written Work. Write sketches of William C. 
Rogers, D. H. Johnson, Green McCurtain, Pleasant 
Porter and John F. Brown. 



LESSON 31 

DAWES COMMISSION AND CURTIS ACT 

It will be remembered that the '' rider " passed 
by Congress in 1889, providing for the opening of 
Old Oklahoma to settlement, also provided for the 
appointment of a commission to induce the In- 
dians to receive allotments and sell their surplus 
lands. That commission did its work well. It 
arranged for opening the lands in Oklahoma to 
settlement. 



126 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

The Dawes Commission was appointed in 1893 
to negotiate with the Five CiviHzed Tribes to 
Dawes induce them to receive their lands in 

Commission severalty and to close up their tribal 
affairs. The commission was composed of three 
men J later five, with Henry L. Dawes as chair- 
man. For that reason it was called the Dawes 
Commission. 

This commission had an immense task to per- 
form. It took several years to induce the Indians 
to divide up their lands and give up their tribal 
government. When they agreed to do so it 
rec^uired much work to carry out the agreements. 
A complete roll of each tribe had to be made, 
the lands had to be surveyed and valued, then 
allotted to the members of the tribes, so that 
each one would receive lands of about the same 
value. 

After the Civil War, and especially after the 
first railroad had crossed the Indian Territory, 
many whites went into that region. 
Some provisions had to be made to 
meet the changed conditions. In 1898 Congress 
passed a law known as the Curtis Act which 
extended the laws of Arkansas over the Indian 
Territory as far as applicable. It provided for 



DAWES COMMISSION AND CURTIS ACT 127 

the establishment of schools for the whites in the 
rural districts, and placed the tribal schools under 
Federal supervision. It abolished tribal courts 
and provided that tribal governments should 
cease January 1, 1906. It also authorized the 
cities to incorporate, with power to levy taxes 
to keep up city schools and governments. 

The Dawes Commission was authorized to 
carry out many of the provisions of the Curtis 
Act. Town sites had to be laid out and the lots 
disposed of. This commission had its head- 
cjuarters at Muskogee. 

The tribal courts had no jurisdiction over white 
men, unless they had been taken into the tribe, 
and white men had no standing in the Federal 
tribal courts. Things were in a very ^^^^^^ 
chaotic condition. The United States District 
Courts sitting at Fort Smith, Arkansas ; Paris, 
Texas ; and Wichita, Kansas, were given jurisdic- 
tion over Federal cases in the Territory. Most of 
the trials were at Fort Smith, but, no doubt, many 
cases were untried. 

At the time Old Oklahoma was opened to settle- 
ment a Federal Court was established in the 
Indian Territory, but tribal courts continued also. 
At the time Indian Territory entered statehood 



128 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

it was divided into four Federal Court districts, 
and the judges of these districts sitting together 
formed a United States Court of Appeals. It 
will be seen that some provisions for Federal gov- 
ernment in the Indian Territory were made b}' 
Congress although the Territor}' was not organ- 
ized. The Dawes Commission may ])e compared 
with a probate court. A probate court settles 
up the affairs of deceased persons, or appoints 
persons to do so, and appoints guardians to look 
after the property of minors and others who are 
unable to look after their affairs. 

The Dawes Commission settled up the affairs 
of tribes which were soon to cease, and took charge 
of the affairs of the Indians, who were regarded 
as wards by the Government. 

Questions. When was a commission appointed to 
negotiate with the Indians in Oklahoma? What did 
it accomplish? What was the Dawes Commission? 
Give the provisions of the Curtis Act. Why was such 
a law needed? Over whom did tribal courts have juris- 
diction? What is meant by jurisdiction? When were 
tribal courts abolished? Where were Federal Courts 
established ? 

Written Work. Write a paper on the work of the 
Dawes Commission. 



OKLAHOMA ORGANIZED 129 

LESSON 32 

OKLAHOMA ORGANIZED 

Oklahoma was hardly settled when its citizens 
began to plan for government. In some of the 
cities steps were taken to organize city govern- 
ment on the evening of the first day. 

People were anxious for territorial govern- 
ment; and there were many reasons why some 
government should be provided. Schools^ roads, 
and bridges were needed, as well as some way to 
adjust difficulties and give protection. 

Some of the people wanted to organize a terri- 
torial government Vithout waiting for Congress 
to do so. A convention consisting of ^. 

^ First tern- 

ninety-six delegates met in Guthrie, toriai con- 
July 17, 1889, to consider the matter. 
The convention adjourned to meet a month 
later. The second convention was divided. 
Some of the delegates wanted to organize a terri- 
torial government, others wanted to petition 
Congress and wait for it to act. Some steps were 
taken towards forming a territorial government, 
but the}^ were not carried out. A petition was 
prepared and sent to Congress. 



130 



OKLAHOMA HISTORY 



The petition was presented, and people went to 
Washington to urge Congress to act quickly, but 
Congress could not be hurried. That body met 
the fii'st Monday in Deceml:)er, LSS9, and the bill 




Organic Act 



First Territorial Convention at Guthrie, Okla., July 20, 1889 

forming Oklahoma Territory became a law, 
May 2, 1890. 

The Organic Act provided for legislative, exec- 
utive, and judicial branches of government, and 
a delegate to Congress. It was to be 
a fully organized territory. In com- 
pliance with the Organic Act, President Harrison 
immediately appointed George W. Steele to be 
governor. He came to Guthrie and took up his 
work, May 22, 1890. There was much to do 
before the Territoiy would be fully organized. 
There were no county or township governments. 
The Organic Act provided for the organization 



OKLAHOMA ORGANIZED 131 

of seven counties which were known at first by 
numbers. Governor Steele appointed all of the 
county officers for these counties. These officers 
were to hold office until their successors should 
be regularly elected. 

By the Organic Act the laws of Nebraska were 
to be the laws of the Territory until the legisla- 
ture should change them. Governor „ 

° First tern- 

Steele called an election for members toriai legis- 
of the legislature to be held August 5. 
The Organic Act provided for thirteen members of 
the Council^ or upper house^ and twenty-six mem- 
bers of the House of Representatives. The first 
legislature was organized August 29, 1890, after 
a delay caused by the death of two members who 
had been elected. There was demand for much 
legislation, but the location of the capital was the 
^ all-absorbing topic. 

The capital was to remain at Guthrie until some 
other place should be selected. Oklahoma City 
was Guthrie's strongest rival. A bill was passed 
by the legislature locating the capital at Okla- 
homa City, but Governor Steele vetoed it. The 
legislature modified the Nebraska laws to meet 
the conditions of the new Territory. 

On November 4, 1890, an election was held for 



132 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

a delegate to Congress. David A. Harvey was 
elected for the term beginning March 4, 1891, and 
also to fill out the term which was to expire at that 
time. The Organic Act provided for a Supreme 
Court consisting of three judges to be appointed 
by the President and the Senate. These judges 
were also to serve as district judges. The governor 
was also to appoint other executive officers of the 
Territoiy. 

Questions. When was Oklahoma settled? When 
and where was the first territorial convention held? 
Purpose? When did the second convention meet? 
What did it do? When did the Organic Act become 
a law? What was to be done before the Territory 
should be fully organized ? When did the first territorial 
legislature meet? What was the chief question before 
it ? How was it settled ? Who was elected as the first 
delegate to Congress? When? For how long? How 
are territorial judges chosen? How were the first 
county officers chosen ? 



LESSON 33 

UNDER TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT 

Oklahoma was under territorial government 
from May 22, 1890, until November 16, 1907, a 



UNDER TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT 133 

period of seventeen and one-half yeai"s. Durin<^ 
that time it increased in population from al)out 
sixty thousand to more than seven hundred thou- 
sand, and increased many times in area. It 
changed from a wild, undeveloped waste to a well- 
settled, prosperous commonwealth. 

As the governors were appointed by the Presi- 
dent, the administrations in the Territory were 
politicall}^ the same as in the nation. 

Governor Steele served from May 22, 1890, to 
October, 1891. By vetoing the Oklahoma City 
Capital Bill, he incurred the displeasure Governor 
of a number of political leaders. He ^*^^^^ 
resigned and returned to Indiana. During the 
time he served, the Territory was organized ; the 
Iowa, Sac and Fox, and Pottawatomie-Shawnee 
reservations were settled, and three territorial 
schools were established : the University at Nor- 
man, the Agricultural and Mechanical College at 
Stillwater, and the Normal School at Edmond. 

Governor A. J. Seay was also appointed by 
President Harrison. He served from October 18, 
1891, to May 7, 1893. He was an As- Governor 
sociate Justice of the Supreme Court ^^^^ 
of the Territory at the time of his appointment. 

The Cheyenne and Arapahoe country was settled 



134 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

during his term^ and Dennis Flynn (Republican) 
was elected delegate to Congress. 

William C. Renfrow was governor from May 7, 
1893 to May 24, 1897, a full term. Governors of 
Governor territories are appointed for four years, 
Renfrow ]^^^ ^^^y j^g removed sooner. During 

his term the Cherokee Outlet and the Kickapoo 
country were settled and Greer County added 
to Oklahoma. The Dawes Commission was ap- 
pointed in 1893. Flynn was reelected to Congress 
in 1894 and was defeated by James Y. Callahan in 
1896. The Democrats and Populists fused to 
elect Callahan. 

Cassius M. Barnes was appointed governor, 
May 24, 1897, and served until April 15, 1901, 
Governor practically a full term. The Spanish- 
Barnes American War occurred while he was 
in office, and President McKinley made two 
calls for volunteers. Under the first call, Okla- 
homa and Indian Territoiy each furnished one 
troop of cavaliy. These two troops were '' Rough 
Riders." Oklahoma was allowed to organize a 
battalion of four companies under the second call. 
Flynn was elected delegate to Congress in 1898 
and again in 1900. He had declared himself in 
favor of a law giving the settlers their homes free. 



UNDER TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT 135 

This applied particularly to the Cherokee Ou,' et 
where it was about time for the settlers to prove 
up their lands. The Free Homes Bill became a 
law June 17, 1900. During this time Congress 
also passed the Curtis Act, and the legislature es- 
tablished the Northwestern Normal School at 
Alva and the University Preparatory School at 
Tonka wa. 

Early in 1901 there was considerable excitement 
aroused by the report that Crazy Snake, a Creek 
chief, was about to take the warpath. He was 
simply trying to restore the old laws and customs 
of his tribe. 

Governor William M. Jenkins was appointed 
by President McKinley, April 15, 1901, and 
served until November 30, 1901, when Governor 
he was removed by President Roose- J^^^^^^ 
velt. During the short time he served, the South- 
western Normal School was established at Weather- 
ford and the Kiowa and Comanche countiy was 
opened to settlement. 

Thompson B. Ferguson was governor from 
November 30, 1901, to January 5, 1906. He 
served a little more than four years, as Governor 
no appointment had been made when ^^rguson 
his term expired. While he was governor, the 



136 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

tribal governments of the Kaws, Poncas, and Otoe- 
Missouris were ended and their lands added to 
Kay, Noble, and Pawnee counties. The Sequoyah 
Convention was held at Muskogee, in 1905, and 
a tornado almost destroyed Snyder the same 
year. Bird McGuire was elected delegate to 
Congress in 1902, and again in 1904. 

During Governor Ferguson's term the state- 
hood question was uppermost in the minds of the 
people. Conventions were held and lively dis- 
cussions took place ; some favored single, others 
separate, statehood. 

Governor Frank Frantz served from January 5, 
1906, to November 16, 1907. The Big Pasture 
Governor was Settled in December, 1906. The 
Frantz most important event of his term was 

the passage of the Omnibus Statehood Bill which 
provided for the admission of Oklahoma and the 
Indian Territory as one state, and the territories 
of New Mexico and Arizona as another state. 
Oklahoma and the Indian Territory were divided 
into delegate districts, and delegates were elected to 
the Constitutional Convention. The convention 
met and framed a constitution. This constitution 
was submitted to the people for their approval 
and at the same time state officers were elected. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR STATEHOOD 137 

The election resulted in the adoption of the con- 
stitution by a large majority, so the President 
proclaimed Oklahoma a state. 

Questions. During what time was Oklahoma a 
territory? How much had it increased in population? 
In area? How are governors of a territory chosen? 
Name the governors in order of service, giving time each 
served. What is the length of a term of a territorial 
governor? Why did some of the governors of Okla- 
homa serve a shorter period? Which governor served 
the shortest time? Why? Who was governor during 
the war with Spain? How many men did Oklahoma 
send to the war? What is a troop? Name the dele- 
gates to Congress. What was the Free Homes Bill? 
What territorial schools were established? 

Written Work. Write sketches of each of the gov- 
ernors. 



LESSON 34 

THE STRUGGLE FOR STATEHOOD 

Agitation for the admission of Oklahoma into 
the Union as a state began soon after the Terri- 
tory was organized. In December, 1893, Dele- 
gate Flynn introduced a bill in Congress, providing 
for the admission of Oklahoma and Indian Ter- 



138 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

ritoiy as one state. The House Committee on 
Territories reported in favor of the admission of 
Oklahoma alone. A Democratic Statehood Con- 
vention met at Perry in January, 1894, which 
declared in favor of single statehood. A council 
of Indians belonging to the Five Civilized Tribes 
was held at Eufaula in March, 1894, which adopted 
resolutions against statehood. 

From this time on, people were divided on the 
statehood question. Some favored single state- 
„. , , hood, or the forming of a sinde state 

Single and ^ . 

separate out of Oklahoma and the Indian 

Territory. Others wanted a separate 
state to be made of Oklahoma, leaving the Indian 
Territory to be cared for at some other time. 
The term double statehood was also used. That 
term meant to make two states of the two terri- 
tories. Joint statehood meant to join the two 
territories into one state. 

Interest in the question of statehood continued 
to grow. Conventions of various kinds — busi- 
ness, religious, and educational — adopted resolu- 
tions urging Congress to act. Statehood Conven- 
tions memorialized Congress to pass a Statehood 
Bill. Some were for single, others for separate, 
statehood. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR STATEHOOD 139 

There were many reasons for delay. Those 
interested could not unite on any one plan. Most 
of the Democratic leaders in Congress favored 
two states. Most of the Republican leaders 
wanted but one state. Many of the eastern 
Congressmen thought the Indians were not ready 
for statehood. Some even thought Oklahoma 
too much of a wild-west region to convert into a 
state. 

Delegate Flynn succeeded in getting an Omni- 
bus Statehood Bill through the House in 1902, but 
it failed to pass the Senate before the end of that 
Congress, March 4, 1903. 

Delegate McGuire secured the passage of a bill 
through the House, providing for a separate state 
to be formed of Oklahoma. The Senate amended 
the bill, making one state of the two territories. 
The House refused to concur, so the bill failed to 
become a law. 

In July, 1905, a convention was held at Mus- 
kogee, consisting of delegates who favored making 
a separate state of the Indian Terri- sequoyah 
tory. This convention drew up a Convention 
constitution for the state of Sequoyah, as it was 
proposed to call the state. The constitution 
was submitted to the people of the Indian Terri- 



140 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

tory for their approval. The vote was hght, but 
the majority of those who voted favored the con- 
stitution. Congress was then asked to admit 
the proposed state of Sequoyah into the Union. 
No action was taken by Congress, and the effort 
failed to secure statehood, but it brought a number 
of men into prominence and prepared them for 
the Constitutional Convention, which formed the 
constitution for Oklahoma. Charles N. Haskell 
and William Murray were the leaders in the Se- 
quoyah Convention. Pleasant Porter, governor 
of the Creek Nation, was chairman. 

After a long struggle the fifty-ninth Congress 
passed the Omnibus Statehood Bill, June 14, 
Omnibus ^^^^ (Fl^g Day), and it was approved 
statehood by the President, June 16. It pro- 
vided for a single state of Oklahoma 
and Indian Territory, and for a single state of 
Arizona and New Mexico, provided the people 
in those two territories wanted to unite. The 
people of the two last-named territories were 
opposed to uniting, and as a result those states 
did not enter the Union until the year 1912. 

The Enabling Act provided for one hundred and 
twelve delegates, to be elected to a Constitutional 
Convention ; fifty-five from Oklahoma, fifty-five 



THE STRUGGLE FOR STATEHOOD 



141 




from Indian Territory, and two from the Osage 
Nation. Oklahoma was divided into fifty-five 
districts by the governor, the secretary, and the 
chief justice of the 
Territory. Indian 
Territory was di- 
vided into fifty- 
five districts by 
the commissioner 
of the Five Tribes 
and two of the 
judges of the Fed- 
eral Courts of 
Indian Territor}^ 

The delegates were elected November 6, 1906. 
Ninety-nine were Democrats, twelve Republi- 
cans, and one Independent. The convention 
met in the City Hall at Guthrie, November 20, 
1906, and continued in session until July, 1907, 
except that two recesses were taken ; one in April, 
to give the committees a chance to complete their 
work, and the other in June, to aw^ait the result 
of an injunction suit brought against the conven- 
tion. 

The constitution was submitted to the people, 
September 17, 1907. At the same time state 



City Hall, Guthrie, Oklahoma 



142 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

officers were elected. One provision of the Ena- 
constitution ^Hng Act was that there should be prohi- 
ratified bition in the Indian Territory part of 

the state for twenty-one years. A proposition 
to have prohibition in the entire state for twenty- 
one years was submitted to the voters at the same 
time, as an amendment to the constitution. The 
constitution was ratified by an overwhelming 
majority. The prohibition amendment was car- 
ried by eighteen thousand. The Democratic 
party elected their candidates for the state officers. 

William H. Murray was president of the Con- 
stitutional Convention. Charles N. Haskell was 
the leader of the majority party in the conven- 
tion, and Henry Asp was the leader of the minority. 

President Roosevelt proclaimed Oklahoma a 
state, November 16, 1907. 

Questions. What is meant by single statehood? 
Separate statehood ? How is a state admitted into the 
Union? Why did Congress delay the matter so long? 
Why were conventions called at various times? Why 
were resolutions passed? What delegates to Congress 
were active in trying to secure statehood? What is 
an Omnibus Bill? When did the Omnibus Statehood 
Bill become a law? What is an Enabling Act? How 
many delegates were provided for in the Enabling Act ? 



THE STRUGGLE FOR STATEHOOD 143 

How distributed ? What were they to do ? When were 
the delegates elected? How long was the Constitu- 
tional Convention in session? When was the constitu- 
tion voted upon? What other question was voted 
upon at the same time ? When did Oklahoma become 
a state? How? When were state officers elected? 

Written Work. Write a brief account of the Se- 
quoyah Convention. Make a list of the leading men in 
the Constitutional Convention. 



PERIOD OF STATEHOOD 



LESSON 35 

THE FORTY-SIXTH STATE 

Now that we have followed the story of a great 
state in its making, it ma}^ be well to pause and 
take a view of this, the forty-sixth state to enter 
our Union, that we may see what it is and how it 
was made. 

Explored by Spaniards,- Frenchmen, and Ameri- 
cans ; claimed by Spain, France, and England, it 
is now a constituent part of a great federal nation, 
on an equal footing with the other members of 
that Union. 

When the Europeans appropriated the New 
World to themselves, they found here a native 
race which they called the Indian. This race 
being nomadic in instinct roamed at will, and 
most of its tribes had no very permanent place of 
abode. Many of the white people, therefore, 
developed the idea that the Indians had but 
little right to the land. If the Indians tried to 

144 



THE FORTY-SIXTH STATE 145 

prevent the encroachments of the whites, they 
were driven from their lands or forced to sell. 

The United States decided to give them a part 
of the western lands and let them have that to 
themselves. In accordance with this Indian 
idea, Congress set apart an Indian territory 
country in 1830. The western part of the Louisi- 
ana Purchase was considered of little value, so 
Congress was generous. It set apart a great region 
west of Arkansas and Missouri, stretching from the 
Red River to the British Possessions. Tribes and 
remnants of tribes were moved there. 

This land afterwards proved to be more valuable 
than it was first thought to be, and the Indians 
had been given more than they needed. By the 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854) the Indian country 
was narrowed down to the present limits of Okla- 
homa, leaving out the Panhandle. 

Later, the Five Tribes owning most of that 
region took sides with the Confederacy. By so 
doing, they forfeited their treaty rights and in 
making new treaties they were forced to make 
terms which opened the way for the whites to 
invade their country. The white men brought 
progress and a more advanced form of government. 

To-day we have a state of one million seven 



146 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

hundred thousand people. Hardly one hundred 
thousand of them are Indians. There are sixteen 
whites to one Indian. While the proportion of 
Indian blood is not great^ yet this is the Indian 
state. It contains more Indian blood than any 
other state of the Union. Its name is Oklahoma 
(Red Man's Land). Many of its counties, cities, 
rivers, and mounds have Indian names. 

Another important element in its development 
is the way it was settled. The other states have 
Character of been Settled by people who came from 
population g^^^gg almost directly east of them. 
People have moved westward mainly along paral- 
lel lines, a fact that has divided the country into 
two great segments, the north and the south. 
This region, having been set apart for Indians, 
withheld it from white settlement, until the whites 
had settled the country to the north and to the 
south of it. All of the first railroads that crossed 
it ran from north to south. When it was opened 
to settlement, people came from both the north 
and the south. There were brought together for 
the first time people from these two sections to 
form one commonwealth. The way in which it 
was settled is worth considering. In all the lands 
opened by the race plan, great energy and great 



THE FORTY-vSIXTH STATE 147 

endurance were demanded. Hence, the popula- 
tion ought to have an unusually high percentage 
of those forces which go to make success. This 
fusion, this bringing together of the best blood of 
the north and the south and the American Indian, 
under the present favorable conditions, should 
produce the highest type of manhood and woman- 
hood. 

Questions. Who were the Indians? Why were 
they so called? How did they live? How did the 
Europeans regard them? How did the whites treat 
them ? When did the United States set apart a country 
for them? What region was set apart? When and 
how was it cut down? In the treaties of 1866 what 
terms did the Five Civilized Tribes have to agree to? 
How did these terms lead to the settlement of this coun- 
try by the whites? How many people in Oklahoma 
now? From what directions did the settlers in Okla- 
homa come? 

Written Work. Write a paper showing how a fusion 
of people from the north and the south will be an advan- 
tage. 



148 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

LESSON 36 
INAUGURATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 

According to the Enabling Act Oklahoma would 
become a state the moment the President signed 
President's his name to the proclamation. In 
proclamation qy^q^ that arrangements might be made 
for the inauguration of the first governor of the 
state. President Roosevelt gave notice in advance 
that he would sign the proclamation at ten 
o'clock A.M. (Eastern time), November 16, 1907. 

Governor Haskell took the oath of oflSce at 9 : 20 
A.M., which was as soon as this message from 
Washington was received. He did this that he 
might prevent a pipe line from being laid out of 
the state into Kansas. Had he waited to take the 
oath in public at twelve o'clock noon, the time 
set, there would have been an interval when 
Oklahoma would have been without a governor. 
The plan of those constructing the line was to 
extend the pipe across the state border during 
this interval. 

A large number of people from over the state 
assembled at Guthrie to see the inaugiu'ation. A 
sufficient number of beeves had been barbecued. 



INAUGURATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 149 

SO that any who desired could eat barbecued beef. 
The ceremonies wei'e held on a platform erected in 
front of the Carnegie Library, begin- inauguration 
ning at twelve o'clock. A marriage ceremonies 
ceremony, representing the union of the two 
territories, was performed. A lady represented 
Indian Territory and a man stood for Oklahoma, 
and, as is usually the case, the bride took the hus- 
band's name. Governor Haskell again took the 
oath of office and delivered his inaugural address 
to a multitude of people. 

The task of starting the state government into 
operation was an important one. Half of the 
state had had no county government, in fact, little 
government of any kind. A new constitution, 
containing many new ideas, had to be put into 
operation. The territorial laws had to be modified 
to suit the changed conditions. 

Governor Haskell called the legislature to meet 
at Guthrie the first Monday in December. Lieu- 
tenant Governor Bellamy was, ex-officio, Presi- 
dent of the Senate. William H. Murray was 
chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
As soon as the legislature could do so, it elected 
two United States Senators. Robert L. Owen and 
Thomas P. Gore were chosen. 



150 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

The members of the Supreme Court were John 
B. Turner, R. L. Williams, M. J. Kane, Samuel 
Supreme W. Hayes, and Jesse J. Dunn. They 
Court ^gj.g elected at the time the state 

officers were chosen. At that same election were 
chosen judges of the District Courts and all the 
county officers, as well as members of both houses 
of the state legislature. All of the state officers 
— legislative, executive, and judicial — and all 
of the county officers having been elected Sep- 
tember 17, and all of the officers having entered 
upon the duties of their offices, November 16, 1907, 
the government of the state was fully organized. 

Questions. When did Oklahoma become a state? 
Who was the first governor? In what ways had he 
been prominent before ? When and where was he inaug- 
urated? When did the first state legislature meet? 
Who presided over each House ? How was each chosen 
to the position of presiding officer ? Who were the first 
United States Senators from this state ? How chosen ? 
Who were the members of the Lower House of Congress 
from this state ? When were the state officers elected ? 
The county officers? When did their terms begin? 
What is meant by Eastern time ? 

Written Work. Write a description of the inaugura- 
tion of the first governor. Write fully the reason Gov- 
ernor Haskell took the oath of office twice. 



UNDER STATE GOVERNMENT 151 

LESSON 37 

"UNDER STATE GOVERNMENT 

Charles N. Haskell, the first governor of the 
State of Oklahoma, served from November 16, 
1907, mitil January, 1911. He had Governor 
been a resident of Muskogee since ^^^^^^^ 
1900, had been a prominent member of the Se- 
quoyah Constitutional Convention (1905), and 
had been the acknowledged leader in the Con- 
stitutional Convention which met at Guthrie, 
November 20, 1906, to frame a constitution for 
the state of Oklahoma. He was the candidate 
of the Democratic party, his chief opponent 
being Frank Frantz, the Republican candidate. 

He called the legislature together as soon as it 
could be done by law. It assembled the first 
Monday in December and continued First state 
in session for more than five months, legislature 
The constitution provided that the first session of 
the legislature might be one hundred and sixty 
days. The legislature on the day after it met and 
organized elected United States Senators Owen 
and Gore. The legislature revised the territorial 
statutes and enacted a number of important laws. 



152 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

Among them were the Guaranty Bank Deposit 
' Law, the Compulsory Primary Election Law, 
and the Uniform Textbook Law. The Board of 
Agriculture was reorganized, and provisions were 
made for the establishment of three additional 
normal schools and six secondary schools of 
agriculture. 

One of the characteristic features of the Okla- 
homa constitution is that the people may initiate 
laws, also amendments to the constitution, and 
Initiative and have laws and amendments referred 

referendum ^^ ^j^^j^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^YiQUl. 

A number of measures have been initiated by the 
people, and others have been referred to them by 
the legislature. 

One important question was the location of the 
state capital. The election was held June 11, 
1910. The vote stood : Oklahoma City 92,261 ; 
Guthrie 31,301 ; Shawnee 8382. Governor Has- 
kell at once moved the capital to Oklahoma City. 
Another initiated question was an amendment to 
the suffrage clause of the constitution, known as 
the Grandfather Clause. The election was held 
August 2, 1910. There were 134,443 votes cast 
for the amendment, and 106,222 against it. 

The Constitutional Convention had divided 



UNDER STATE GOVERNMENT 153 

the state into seventy-five counties and had made 
regulations by which other counties might l)e 
formed. In accordance with these 

New counties 

provisions Harmon County was formed 
from a part of Greer County. Swanson County 
was formed of parts of Kiowa and Comanche 
counties^ but the courts decided that it was illegally 
formed and it was dissolved. During 1912 a new 
county was formed of the southern part of Co- 
manche County and was named Cotton County. 
Walter was made county seat. 

The constitution provides that the governor 
cannot succeed himself. Governor Haskell could 
not be a candidate for reelection in 1910. At the 
primary election held in August of that year, the 
Democratic Party nominated Lee Cruce for gov- 
ernor, and the Republican Party named J. W. 
McNeal. The Democrats were successful at the 
general election in November and elected Lee 
Cruce. 

At the time of his election Governor Cruce was 
engaged in the banking business at Ardmore. His 
term began the second Monday of January, 1911, 
and will end in 1915. During his term Governor 
a number of important laws have ^^^^^ 
been made. The management of the state banks 



154 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

and the Guaranty Bank Fund have been given 
to a board consisting of the governor and two men 
experienced in banking. 

In 1911 a law was enacted creating the State 
Board of Education. This board consists of 
seven members, the state superintendent being 
state board president of the board, with six mem- 
of education ^^^^ appointed by the governor. 
The board has control of all the state educational 
institutions except the agricultural schools. This 
was a move to secure harmony among the state 
schools, as well as unity in the state school sys- 
tem. The State Board of Education is also the 
state textbook board. 

The office of county assessor was created. This 
office takes the place of township assessors. 
Laws were also made favoring the consolidation 
of district schools. A tax congress 
was held in Oklahoma City in June, 
1912, to inquire into the cause of high taxes and to 
devise some way to remedy the matter. At that 
convention Governor Cruce advocated cutting 
down the number of state and county officers. 
The congress adopted a resolution favoring a 
commission form of government for counties. 
Their plan is for the people of each county to 



UNDER STATE GOVERNMENT 155 

elect four men, a county judge and three commis- 
sioners, and that these four men should appoint 
what county officers are needed and should have 
entire charge of the affairs of the county. 

It will be seen by observing the new features 
already in the constitution of Oklahoma, and 
the tendency to adopt others, that we are in a 
very important period in the development 
of government. Oklahoma is making history 
rapidly. 

The fourth legislature (1913) reapportioned the 
state into eight congressional districts, made pro- 
vision for the erection of a state capitol building, 
abolished the office of state printer and township 
offices in certain counties, and combined some of 
the county offices in certain counties. It raised 
the requirements for teachers' certificates. In 
order to secure a certificate after Januaiy, 1916, 
a person must have academic training in an ap- 
proved high scliool, or its equivalent, or must 
have professional training in one of the Oklahoma 
State Normal Schools, State University, or the 
A. & M. College, or an equivalent course. 
(Right to renewal is not affected by this act.) 
A number of other laws to improve the public 
schools were passed. 



156 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

Questions. When did Oklahoma become a state? 
Who was the first governor of the state? The present 
governor? What party elected each? What is the 
length of the governor's term? When does the gov- 
ernor's term begin? Name a law that has been ini- 
tiated. An amendment that has been initiated. What 
is the Guaranty Bank Law ? What is the Grandfather 
Clause? How is the Board of Education constituted? 

Written Work. Write on the advantages and dis- 
advantages of a consolidated district. Write an expla- 
nation of the commission form of government. Write 
an account of the moving of the capital. 



LESSON 38 

INDUSTRIES OF THE STATE 

Oklahoma is well located. It is almost in the 
center of the United States. It has easy access 
to the Gulf of Mexico with its ports, and it has 
good railway connections with the southern 
ports of California • as well as with the Great 
Lakes and the Mississippi by way of Chicago and 
St. Louis. 

Oklahoma is a good-sized state. Its seventy 
thousand square miles extend from the foot of 
the Ozarks across undulating plains almost to the 



INDUSTRIES OF THE STATE 157 

foothills of the Rocky Mountains. In elevation 
it is from a few hundred feet in the east to about 
five thousand feet in the extreme west. Its surface 
is rough in places, even to mountainous, rolling in 
some sections, and almost a perfect plain in others. 
There is a great variety of soil in the state ; most 
of it is very fertile. The climate is a mild tem- 
perate, and the rainfall is sufficient for crops in 
most sections of the state, except during occasional 
seasons. 

Agriculture is the leading industry. The most 
important crops are cotton, corn, wheat, and oats. 
Other products of the farm, which add 

• n r ^ Agriculture 

materially to the wealth oi the state, 
are alfalfa, kaffir corn, broom corn, potatoes, 
cowpeas, and fruit. The farms and the pasture 
lands produce great numbers of hogs, cattle, 
horses, mules, and some sheep. 

Oklahoma is fortunate in the variety and abun- 
dance of its mineral deposits. While mining in 
the state is in its infanc}^, yet vast sums are being 
realized from that source annually. It is well 
supplied with petroleum, natural gas, coal, asphalt, 
granite, limestone, sandstone, g37)sum, salt, sand, 
and gravel. In the northeastern part of the state 
considerable zinc and lead are produced, and good 



158 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

qualities of clay for brick and tile are found in 
many parts of the state. 

Manufacturing is rapidly becoming one of the 

principal industries of the state. The abundance 

of fuel makes it desirable to establish 

Manufactures , 

factories near the source of supply of 
the materials to be used in manufacturing. Cot- 
ton gins, flour mills, and cotton-seed oil mills are 
numerous. There are in operation a number of 
cement plants, meat packing plants, salt refineries, 
saw mills, planing mills, machine shops, foundries, 
and mills for cutting and polishing granite. Brick, 
tile, paint, and asphaltum paving-blocks are also 
being manufactured. 

Lumbering in the eastern part of the state and 
dairying in man}^ parts of the state are important. 
Many people are engaged in commerce and in 
transporting the products of the state to market, 
and in supplying the state with needed articles 
that it does not produce. 

Oklahoma does not depend upon one industry, 
nor mainly upon one crop. The variety of its 
products and the number of its industries make 
it a well-balanced state where business interests 
are not so likely to fluctuate as in a community 
that depends largely upon one industry. 



DEVELOPMI]NT OV THl-] STATE 159 

Questions. What is the area of Oklahoma? What 
are its dimensions? What can you say of its surface? 
Of its soil? Of its rainfall? Name the industries of 
the state. Name the farm products and the part of 
the state in which each 'is produced. What kinds of 
hve stock are raised in the state? Name the minerals 
found in Oklahoma. Tell where each is found. What 
kinds of factories? Locate several of each kind. In 
what part of the state are men engaged in lumbering? 
What products are shipped out of the state? Where 
do they go ? What are shipped into the state ? From 
where ? Why is a variety of industries important ? 

Written Work. Make a list of the products of cotton 
seed. Make a list of the prices of the products of the 
state. Write a paper on the uses of cement. 



LESSON 39 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE 

The development of Oklahoma has been wonder- 
ful. People who have seen its growth from the 
beginning are struck with wonder and admira- 
tion at the rapidity of its progress. 

In the history of Greece, during its mythical 
period, we are told of a certain hero by the name 
of Cadmus who, having slain a dragon that guarded 



160 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

a spring, took the dragon's teeth and sowed them. 
These sprang up armed men, and with these men 
he overcame the enemies in the land and estab- 
Hshed the city of Thebes. . 

The heroes who have made Oklahoma came into 

this untried region, and broke the virgin soil in 

search of agricultural riches. They 

Real heroes . 

delved deep mto its surface for its 
mineral treasures, and from their efforts have 
sprung up, as if by magic, cities and schools and 
homes. 

But a quarter of a century ago almost all of 
the land was as if it had been untouched by the 
hand of man. Cattle roamed over a large part 
of it, with a ranch house here and there. In the 
eastern part and about the agencies, a few farms 
had been opened up by the Indians or by the 
government for the Indians, but the country in 
the main was in its original state. 

The story of its settlement has been told. With 

its settlement came development and progress. 

Now the state is crossed in all direc- 

Railroads 

tions by railroads. Almost ever}^ sec- 
tion is reached by a road and many localities 
have the best of railroad facilities. The total 
mileage aggregates about seven thousand miles. 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE 



161 



The Missouri; Kansas, and Texas ; the St. Louis 
and San Francisco ; the Atchison, Topeka, and 
Santa Fe ; the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific ; 
and the Kansas City, Mexico, and Orient are the 
leading lines. Oil pipe-lines carry petroleum to 



|J^"||!|f,.B!l^'^!lit 
!!!!!^ lliii^ nil 



liiSI' HUE. 









ipll^ mm 
iili iiiii: 
iilif,lil: 



Oklahoma City High School 



the refineries, and natural gas is piped to many 
of the leading cities. 

Many cities and towns have been built, and 
most of them have part or all of the modern con- 
veniences. According to the 1910 

1 . 1 . . . , Cities 

census there were eight cities with 
more than ten thousand inhabitants, — Okla- 
homa City, Muskogee, Tulsa, Enid, McAlester, 



162 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

Shawnee, Guthrie, and Chickasha. The popu- 
lation of the state was 1,657,155. 

In the state there are about 12,000,000 acres of 
land in cultivation, about twice that amount 
under control, "and as much more farm land 
undeveloped in any way. 

In the southeastern part of the state there are 
large sections of segregated coal lands, or lands 
underlaid with coal, which are still tribal prop- 
erty. The surface of much of this land is well 
suited to agriculture. In a short time the sur- 
face of these lands will be sold and opened up to 
the farmer. 

The people are, as a class, thrifty and ambi- 
tious to advance. As soon as they are able they 
build substantial houses and make other perma- 
nent improvements. They are now much inter- 
ested in the building of good roads. 

While Oklahoma is advancing rapidly in a 
material way, this is not the only progress it is 
making. It is also advancing intellectually and 
morally. The most modern school buildings are 
being erected in all the cities and in many rural 
districts. The state has established and equipped 
many splendid institutions of learning. Particular 
efforts are being made to raise the standard of 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE 163 

farming and to improve rural conditions so that 
farm life will l)e more attractive. 

The various i-eligious bodies are well represented 
in the state. Every city and town and most 
rural communities are well supplied with churches. 

The state at its beginning voted prohibition 
for twenty-one years, and since then 
has voted down the proposition to intellectual 
re-submit the prohibition amendment advancement 
to the constitution. 

The history of Oklahoma has a unique and 
marvelous beginning. It should be full of interest 
to every person in Oklahoma. Let it be remem- 
bered that its history has just begun. What its 
future will be depends upon the boys and girls 
of to-day. The state expects every Oklahoman 
to do his duty. 

Questions. Tell the story of Cadmus. Who are 
the real heroes of Oklahoma? How old is Oklahoma? 
Name and trace the leading railroad lines. Locate 
the oil pipe-lines. What cities are supplied with natural 
gas? Where is gas found? Name and locate eight of 
the largest cities in the state. What is the population 
of the state? How much of the land is under cultiva- 
tion? How much of it is not cultivated? What is 
segregated coal land? What is to be done with the 
surface of it ? What is meant by intellectual advance- 



164 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

ment? By moral advancement? What is prohibi- 
tion? 

Written Work. Make a list of the religious bodies 
represented in this state with the membership of each. 
Write a paper on how farm life may be made attractive. 
Write a paper on the value of good roads. 



LESSON 40 

EDUCATION 



Missionaries had started educational work 
among the Indians before the Five Tribes moved 
Mission west. The mission schools, and the 

schools printing presses operated in connec- 

tion with some of them, contributed much toward 
the advancement of the civilized tribes. A num- 
ber of schools were successfully conducted by dif- 
ferent religious bodies. Among them were Park- 
hill Seminary in the Cherokee Nation, Armstrong 
Academy in the Choctaw Nation, Wapanucka 
Academy in the Chickasaw Nation, Tullahassee 
Mission in the Creek Nation, and Sacred Heart 
in the Pottawatomie country. Near the Union 
agency at Muskogee were Bacone College, Harry 
Kendall College, and Harrell Institute. 



EDUCATION 165 

When the Five Tribes moved west the}^ left 
funds on deposit with the government, on which 
they drew interest. Part of this in- Tribal 
terest was used for the support of tribal ^^^^^^^ 
schools. The Creeks and Seminoles had no tribal 
schools until after the Civil War. However, for 
many years before statehood, the Five Tribes 
maintained schools for Indian children. The 
Cherokees had two academies at Tahlequah, one 
for males and the other for females. The Choc- 
taws appropriated money for the support of acad- 
emies. The Indians also often sent some of their 
children to schools among the whites. 

The Federal Government established a number 
of schools for the Indians, — one at Chilocco, 
one near the Darlington agency, one at Lawton, 
and another near Anadarko. 

By the Curtis Act, government schools were 
organized in the rural districts of the civilized 
tribes for the benefit of the white chil- Government 
dren, but Indian children could attend ^'^^^^^^ 
also. These schools were under the supervision 
of John D. Benedict for about ten years beginning 
in 1898. The Curtis Act also provided for the 
organization of schools in the cities of Indian 
Territory. 



166 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

A great educational factor among the Cherokees 
was their newspaper which was pubhshed by the 
nation and furnished free to the members of the 
tribe. It was printed both in Cherokee and in 
Cherokee Enghsh. It was Started by Ehas 
Advocate » Boudinot in 1827 before the Cherokees 
came west, and was called the Phoenix. It was 




U. S. Indian School, Chilocco, Oklahoma 

discontinued in 1832, and started again in 1844, 
under the name of the Cherokee Advocate. The 
Civil War caused it to cease publication, but in 
1870 it was reestablished, and continued until 
1906. 

Sequoyah's name should be mentioned in this 
connection. By the invention of the Cherokee 
alphabet he opened the way for the education 



EDUCATION 



167 



of his people. The Cherokee language contains 
eighty-five sounds. Sequoyah (George Guess) in- 
vented a character for each sound. He made the 
invention about 1(S21. 

As soon as Oklahoma was settled, schools were 
started. When Oklahoma Territory was organ- 
ized, a territorial superintend- 
ent was appointed by the 
governor (Governor Steele) , 
also a county superintendent 
for each county, and an edu- 
cational S3^stem was soon out- 
lined. The first territorial 
legislature provided for a uni- 
versity, an agricultural college, 
and a normal school. Before 
statehood there had been es- 
tal^lished in addition to these, two other normal 
schools, a preparatory school, and a school for 
colored people. 

Since statehood the number of state schools 
has been greatly increased. There have been 
added three normal schools, a prepara- 

IIP- 1 state schools 

tory school, a school oi mmes, a col- 
lege for girls, a school for the deaf, one for the 
blind, a boys' training school, a school for feeble 




Sequoyah, Inventor of 
Cherokee Alphabet 



168 OKLAHOMA HISTORY 

minded, a school for orphans, and six secondary 
agricultural schools. 

At the session of the state legislature in 1911, 
a law was passed providing for a State Board of 
Education, giving it additional powers. This law 
has done much to unify the school system of the 
state by giving the Board control over all the 
state schools, except the agricultural schools, and 
giving it the power to select the textbooks for the 
state. The Board of Agriculture has control of 
the agricultural schools. 

The common schools are free, the cities provide 
free high schools, and the state provides higher 
education free. The law provides for compulsory 
education, for uniform textbooks, for the con- 
solidation of district schools, and it forbids child 
labor that will prevent children from attending 
school. 

Oklahoma received from the United States 
large grants of land, also 15,000,000, for the sup- 
port of the common schools and the higher insti- 
tutions of learning. The income from the school 
lands and state school fund is supplemented by 
taxation. 

The state is also well supplied with educational 
institutions supported by religious bodies. Some 



EDUCATION 100 

of these are Kingfisher College, at Kingfisher; 
the Wesleyan College, at Britton ; Phillips Uni- 
versity, at Enid ; Oklahoma Methodist University, 
at Guthrie; Harry Kendall College, at Tulsa; 
Bacone University, at Muskogee, and the Baptist 
College, at Blackwell. 

Questions. What are mission schools? Name and 
locate as many as you can that were established in 
Indian Territory. What were tribal schools? How 
were they supported? Name and locate the govern- 
ment schools in Oklahoma. How did the Curtis Act 
benefit education? What was the Phoenix? Who 
founded it? What was the Cherokee Advocate? How 
long published? Who was Sequoyah? Name and lo- 
cate the state normal schools. The agricultural schools. 
The other state educational institutions. What finan- 
cial aid did the United States give toward education 
in Oklahoma? 

Written Work. Write on the value of having uni- 
formity of textbooks. The benefits of compulsory 
education. 




Flag of Oklahoma 



Designed by Mrs. W. R. Clement of Oklahoma City. Adopted by the State 
Legislature February 25, 1911. Approved by the Governor March 2, 1911. 



OKLAHOMA CIVICS 



LESSON 1 

INTRODUCTION 

Government. — Government is an organization 
of the people into a political body for protection, 
to secure justice among themselves, and to aid 
in their material advancement. It is necessary 
that people be protected from lawless persons in 
the state and from enemies of their country. 
People differ among theniselves as to what is 
right, so it is necessary to have some authority 
to decide what is right. Without government 
we could not have schools, good roads, and large 
bridges. 

Natural and Civil Rights. — A person living 
entirely alone would have a right to do as he 
pleased, so far as other people are concerned. 
When a person lives in a community he must 
refrain from doing some things that would inter- 
fere with other people. In return he would receive 
some rights that he did not have before, such as 

171 



172 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

protection, school privileges, and the use of good 
roads and bridges." Government is a good thing, 
a blessing. 

Kinds of Government. — In the world to-day 
there are two important kinds of government, 
monarchies and republics. A monarchy is a 
government that has at its head one ruler who 
inherits his position. The power of the monarchs 
of to-day is limited in some way ; that is, they do 
not have entire control of affairs. A republic, or 
representative democracy, is a government where 
the people elect representatives to make laws for 
them, and choose other persons to enforce the 
laws. The tendency at the present time is for 
republics to become more democratic. In other 
words, the people are taking more of the govern- 
ment into their own hands. 

Principles of Government. — The colonies that 
estabhshed the United States were, previous to 
that time, a part of England. As a result of this 
we borrowed a good many ideas of government 
from England. The Magna Charta and the Bill 
of Rights form the basis of the English Constitu- 
tion. The Constitution of the United States is 
the fundamental or foundation law of our whole 
land, and the Declaration of Independence is an 



INTRODUCTION . 173 

expression of the rights which we claim to be 
ours. 

Units of Government. — We hve under a two- 
fold or double government. We live under the 
government of the United States, and under the 
government of Oklahoma. Then the state is 
divided into counties, so we live under county 
government. If we live in a city or organized 
town, we live under city or town government. 
If we live in the country, outside of an organized 
city or town, we live under township government, 
unless we live in a count}^ where township govern- 
ment has been abolished. The country is also or- 
ganized into school districts. It will be seen that 
we have a number of units of government ; the 
Federal, the State, the County, the City, the 
Town, the Township, and the School District. 
At first this may seem complex, but each unit has 
its own work to perform. 

Our Government. — Our country is a represent- 
ative democracy and we form a part of it. The 
government of our state and its subdivisions are 
near to us and affect us in our everyday life. For 
these reasons we should be thoroughly acquainted 
with our government, that we may be active mem- 
bers of the political body or state in which we live. 



174 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

Questions. What is government? Why do we 
need government? What are natural rights? Civil 
rights? Give examples of each. What are the princi- 
pal kinds of government in the world to-day? Ex- 
plain each kind. What documents form the bulwark 
of English liberty? Why are they important to us? 
Why do we prize the Declaration of Independence? 
The Constitution of the United States? What is a 
unit of government? Name the units of government 
in which we are interested. Why should we study Civil 
Government ? 



LESSON 2 

THE SCHOOL DISTRICT 

Organization. — The school district is formed 
by the county superintendent and is said to be 
organized when its officers have been elected and 
have qualified. No district shall be organized 
which contains fewer than eight persons of school 
age. 

District Officers. — A director^ a clerk^ and a 
member constitute the school board. At the 
annual meeting in 1914 the director shall be 
elected, in 1915 a member, and in 1916 a clerk. 
Each shall be elected for three years and their 



THE SCHOOL DISTRICT 175 

successors for the same term. The county treas- 
urer is the custodian of the school district funds. 

Annual Meeting. — The annual school meeting 
is held the first Tuesday in May from two to six 
o'clock in the afternoon. At this meeting the 
voters elect the district officer whose term expires, 
and may determine when the school shall ])e held 
and the length of the ensuing term, which shall 
not be less than three months. Other matters 
pertaining to the school may be decided. 

Voters. — All persons, male or female, twenty- 
one years of age, who are citizens of the United 
States, and who have resided in the state one 
year, in the count}^ six months, and in the school 
district thirty days just preceding the school meet- 
ing, are entitled to vote at the meeting. 

School Money. — • Money for the support of 
district schools comes from three funds : district, 
county, and state. The district fund is derived 
from a tax not to exceed five mills on the dollar, 
which tax may be increased by an amount not to 
exceed ten mills on the dollar, provided a major- 
ity of the votes cast at a special election, called 
for that purpose, are in favor of the increase. 
The county fund is derived from certain fines 
and mav be increased bv a tax not to exceed one 



176 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

mill on the dollar. The state fund is derived 
from interest on loans, rental of school lands, 
and common school tax levied upon the property 
of railroads, pipe-lines, telegraph lines, or upon 
the property of any public service corporation 
which operates in more than one county in the 
state. The county and the state funds are 
divided among the districts according to the 
number of children in the districts who are of 
school age, which is between six and twent3^-one. 
Money for the support of separate schools is 
raised by a county tax. 

Consolidated Districts. — Two or more adja- 
cent school districts, or parts- of districts, may be 
consolidated or may join so as to form one large 
district, provided a majority of those voting at the 
meeting called for that purpose vote in favor of 
the proposition. The officers are the same and 
the time of the annual meeting the same as for 
the common school district. State aid is pro- 
vided, under certain conditions, for consolidated 
districts and union graded schools. 

Union Graded Schools. — Two or more school 
districts may unite to form a union graded school 
in which instruction shall be given in the higher 
branches of education, provided a majority of 



THE SCHOOL DISTRICT 177 

the voters in each of the districts shall vote to 
unite for that purpose. The board of directors 
consists of the same number as that of a district 
school. The annual meeting is the last Saturday 
before the first Tuesday in June. 

Separate Schools. — In districts where there are 
both white and colored children, separate schools 
must be maintained. If there are fewer than ten 
pupils, they may be transferred to the nearest 
school of their own color in an adjoining district. 

Compulsory Attendance. — Children eight to 
sixteen years old, physically and mentally able, 
may be compelled to attend school 66 per cent of 
the session, unless other instruction is provided. 

Kindergartens. — The directors of any school 
district or board of education may establish kin- 
dergartens in connection with the public schools 
in any district having a population of twenty-five 
hundred or more. 

Questions. Who forms the boundary lines of a 
school district? When is a district organized? Who 
are the members of a district board? How are they 
elected? How long do they serve? When is the an- 
nual school meeting? What is done at the meeting? 
Where does the money for the support of schools come 
from? What rate of tax can be levied? How may it 



178 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

be increased? How may a consolidated district be 
formed ? What are the advantages of a large district ? 
What are separate schools ? What length of time may 
a child be compelled to go to school? Between what 
ages ? What is the purpose of union graded schools ? 



LESSON 3 

MUNICIPAL TOWNSHIP 



Organization. — In Oklahoma, under territorial 
government, the county commissioners in each 
county were authorized to divide their county 
into municipal townships. The Constitutional 
Convention divided the new counties into town- 
ships. When the officers are chosen, and qualify 
or take the oath of office, the township is organized. 

Officers. — The officers of a township are : 
trustee, clerk, treasurer, and one road overseer 
in each road district. These officers are elected 
at the general election, the first Tuesday after 
the first Monday in November of even-numbered 
years. They serve two years. When a vacancy 
occurs in a township office the count}^ commis- 
sioners appoint some one to fill the place until 
the next election. 



MUNICIPAL TOWNSHIP 179 

Township Board. — The trustee, clerk, and 
treasurer constitute the township l^oard, or legis- 
lative body of the township. This board examines 
and passes upon all accounts against the town- 
ship, levies taxes for township and road purposes, 
divides the township into road districts, and 
appoints a road supervisor in each road district. 

Duties of Officers. — The trustee is the chief 
executive of the township, has oversight of the 
road overseers, and may direct the work on roads. 
The clerk keeps the accounts of the township. 
The treasurer has charge of the township funds. 
The road overseers notify citizens when and where 
to work on the roads, and have charge of the work. 

Municipal Township. — A municipal township 
serves as a unit for election purposes. A township 
forms an election precinct unless there are too 
many voters in the township to vote conveniently 
at one place, in which case the county commis- 
sioners may divide the township into voting 
precincts. 

Congressional Township. — The municipal 
township, or township, as it is usually called, should 
not be confused with the congressional township. 
The municipal township is for purposes of govern- 
ment, having the officers mentioned above. The 



180 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

congressional township is a tract of land six miles 
square, and is used for the purpose of locating or 
describing land. A municipal township's boun- 
dary lines often follow the boundary lines of con- 
gressional townships and in some parts of the 
state a municipal township exactly coincides with 
the congressional township. The purpose of 
each, however, is different. The municipal town- 
ship is usually larger than the congressional 
township unless the country is thickly settled. 
Offices Abolished. — In certain counties the 
offices of township trustee, township clerk, and 
township treasurer were abolished in 1913 and the 
duties of those offices given to the county com- 
missioners; and by a vote of the people these 
offices may be abolished in any county. 

Questions. How were municipal townships organ- 
ized under territorial government in Oklahoma? How 
formed in the new counties at statehood? When is a 
township organized ? Name the officers of a township. 
When and how elected ? Who constitute the township 
board ? What are the duties of the board ? What are 
the duties of the officers of the township ? In what way 
do townships aid in holding elections? What is a con- 
gressional township ? What is the difference between a 
municipal and a congressional township? Which is 
usually the larger ? 



INCORPORATED TOWNS 181 

Written Work. Draw a map of your county showing 
congressional and municipal townships, naming the 
latter. 



LESSON 4 
INCORPORATED TOWNS 

Corporations. — A corporation is a body of 
individuals authorized by law to act or do business 
as one person. There are public corporations and 
private corporations. A school district is a public 
corporation, so is a municipal township. A thickly 
settled community not incorporated may be called 
a town, l)ut to be incorporated the community 
must be empowered by law to act as one individual. 

Method of Incorporation. — A petition signed 
by not less than one-third of the qualified voters 
of the town is made to the county commissioners. 
The commissioners fix a time for an election to be 
held to determine whether the people want to 
incorporate. If a majority of the voters favor 
incorporation, the commissioners declare the town 
incorporated. No fixed number of people is 
required, but there should })e a sufficient number 
to support such government. 



182 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

Necessity for Incorporation. — When any part 
of a township becomes veiy thickly settled, the 
people living in such territory will need public 
conveniences and advantages which the township 
government or the county government cannot 
furnish. Therefore, it becomes necessaiy that this 
territoiy should be separated from that adjoining 
it and be given a form of government that will 
better meet its needs. 

Town Government. — The town is divided into 
not less than three, nor more than seven districts, 
often called wards. Each district elects one 
trustee, often called councilman. The board of 
trustees elects one of its number as president of 
the board. The board of trustees constitutes the 
legislative or lawmaking department. The town 
also elects a clerk, treasurer, marshal, and justice 
of the peace. The president of the board of trus- 
tees, clerk, treasurer, and marshal constitute 
the executive department. The justice is the 
judicial officer. Some towns provide for other 
officers such as street commissioner, fire marshal, 
engineer, physician, and police judge. 

Powers of Towns. — An incorporated town has 
power to have a seal, to own property, to lay out 
and improve streets, to provide for fire protec- 



INCORPORATED TOWNS 183 

tiou, to assess annual taxes for the support of the 
town's government, to provide for waterworks, 
to prohibit stock from running at large, and to 
establish l:)y-laws, oi'dinances, and^regulations not 
in conflict with the laws of the state. 

Town Schools. — Schools in incorporated towns 
are organized and controlled under the same laws 
that the rural schools are under. 

Unincorporated Towns. — A community may 
[)ecome more thickh' settled than the surrounding 
coimtiy and may contain two or three hundred 
people and yet not be incorporated. It may con- 
tain stores and shops, and some sidewalks and 
street crossings. However, all improvements of 
a public nature will have to be done voluntarily. 
No one can be forced to pay taxes, to build side- 
walks, or to provide for other public improvements. 

Questions. What is a corporation? A public 
corporation? Give examples. How may a town be 
incorporated? How many people must it contain? 
What is the need of incorporating a town ? What offi- 
cers has an incorporated town? What officers consti- 
tute the legislative department? Which are executive 
officers? Name the powers of an incorporated town. 
How are the schools in such a town organized and con- 
trolled? Name the advantages of an unincorporated 
town. 



184 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

LESSON 5 

CITIES 

Kinds of City Government. — We hear the 
expressions, — cities of the first class, cities with 
charter government, and cities with commission 
form of government. In Oklahoma there is but 
one class of cities, and that is the first class. Any 
city with a population of two thousand may be- 
come a city of the first class by complying with 
certain pro^dsions of the law. Thickly settled 
communities with a population less than two 
thousand, that are incorporated, are called incor- 
porated towns. Any city of the first class may 
adopt a special charter for its own government, 
but it is still a city of the first class. Any city 
when it adopts a charter may so form that charter 
as to have a commission form of government. 
Such a city has a commission form of government 
which is a form of charter government, and it 
also is a city of the first class. 

Statutory First Class Cities. — Any city with a 
population of two thousand may petition the 
governor to be incorporated as a city of the first 
class. The governor then calls an election to 



CITIES 185 

determine whether the people want to incorporate. 
If a majority of the voters are in favor of incor- 
porating, the governor proclaims it a city of the 
first class. 

Officers. — The city is divided into not fewer 
than four wards. Each ward elects two council- 
men, who form the legislative department. The 
city also elects a mayor, clerk, treasurer, attorney, 
marshal, and street commissioner, who are the 
executive officers. The police judge is the judicial 
officer of the city. In cities with a population 
of more than twelve thousand a police judge is 
elected. In smaller cities (not having charter 
government) the mayor exercises the duties of 
that office. Other offices may be provided for 
by ordinance, or some of the above-named offices 
may be combined. One member of the council 
from each ward is elected every year for a term 
of two years. Thus one-half of the council is 
elected at a time. The city election is the first 
Tuesday in April. The officers are elected for 
two years in the odd-numbered years. 

Duties of Officers. — The council makes cer- 
tain laws, called ordinances, for the city. The 
mayor presides over the council and sees that the 
laws of the city are enforced. The clerk keeps 



186 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

a record of the proceedings of the council and has 
charge of the documents of the city. The treas- 
urer has control of the funds of the city and keeps 
a record of the money received and paid out. 
The attorney is the legal adviser of the city offi- 
cers, has charge of the law suits of the city, and 
prosecutes those who break the city laws. The 
marshal preserves order and makes arrests. The 
street commissioner has charge of the streets and 
sidewalks. The police judge tries persons who 
have violated the city ordinances. 

Cities with Charter Government. — Any city 
of the first class may form a charter government. 
Two freeholders (men who own real property) 
are elected from each ward. These freeholders 
draw up a charter or form of government for the 
city. The charter is submitted to voters for their 
approval. If a majority vote in favor of the 
charter, it is then sent to the governor for his 
approval. If he finds that the charter is in accord 
with the constitution and laws of the state, he 
approves it, and it becomes the constitution or 
charter of the city. 

Cities with Commission Government. — A city 
may so form its charter as to have a commission 
form of government, which means a government 



CITIES 187 

by a body of commissioners instead of a mayor 
and council and other elective officers. The voters 
elect commissioners, usually five in number, who 
appoint other necessary officers. 

City Schools. — Schools in cities of the first 
class are not under the control of the county super- 
intendent, but are governed by a board of educa- 
tion and a superintendent elected by the board. 
The board consists of two members from each 
ward, and two from territory outside of the city, 
but within the city school district, provided this 
outside territory is sufficiently large and populous. 

At the city election in 1915 a school treasurer 
shall be elected by the city at large for a term of 
two years ; also a board of education consisting of 
one member nominated from each ward and one 
from the outlying district, but all elected by the 
district at large, two for two years, the others for 
four years. Their successors shall be elected for 
four years. But cities with a population of more 
than fifty thousand shall elect two members for 
each ward (the number of wards not to exceed 
five), one for two years, the other for four years. 
Their successors shall be elected for four years. 

Questions. How may a city of the first class be 
formed? Name the officers of such a city. State 



188 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

the duties of each. Who makes the city laws? What 
are they called? How many people in a city of the 
first class ? How may a city form a charter ? Explain 
the commission form of city government. What are 
its advantages? Why are some cities changing to the 
commission form of government? Name some of 
them. What is a freeholder? How are city schools 
governed ? 



LESSON 6 
THE COUNTY 



The County. — In Oklahoma the county is the 
most important unit of local government. The 
township looks after the roads and small bridges, 
but the county keeps a record of the real estate, 
assesses and collects taxes, builds the larger 
bridges, cares for the poor, has charge of the 
schools outside of independent districts, and 
looks after other matters of local governrnent. 

How Counties are Formed. — Oklahoma Ter- 
ritory was organized into counties, but Indian 
Territory was not. When the two were united 
into a state, the constitutional convention formed 
the counties and selected the county seats. Most 
of the counties that had been organized were 



THE COUNTY 189 

left as they were, l)ut some new counties were 
formed, and one county (Day) was eliminated. 
Seventy-five counties were established. 

New Counties. — The constitution provides a 
way for forming new counties. A petition is 
made to the governor, who calls an election in the 
proposed new county to determine whether the 
people want to form a new county. If sixty 
per cent of the voters favor the proposition, the 
governor proclaims the county to be formed. No 
new county can be formed of less than four hun- 
dred square miles of taxable land, nor with a popu- 
lation of less than fifteen thousand, nor with a 
taxable wealth less than $2,500,000. The county 
or counties from which the new county is formed 
must still contain as much land and wealth and 
as many people as required in the new county. 
Three new counties, Harmon, Swanson, and 
Cotton, have been created. One of them, Swan- 
son, has been dissolved. 

County Officers. — County officers are elected 
at the general election in even-numbered ^^ars, 
for a term of two years. The commissioners form 
the legislative department. The executive offi- 
cers are : sheriff, attorney, clerk, treasurer, clerk of 
the district court, register of deeds, superintend- 



190 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

ent of schools, assessor, surveyor, and weigher. 
The judicial officers are : county judge and six 
justices of the peace. The number of justices 
may be increased by the commissioners if the 
population warrants it. Some counties are al- 
lowed a superior court. 

Duties of Officers. — The commissioners have 
charge of the property of the county, examine all 
accounts filed against the county, build bridges, 
care for the poor, and attend to the affairs of the 
county in general. The sheriff makes arrests, 
preserves the peace, and carries out orders of the 
court. The attorney prosecutes violators of the 
state law and is legal adviser of the other county 
officers. The clerk keeps a record of the proceed- 
ings of the commissioners and makes out the tax- 
roll. The treasurer collects taxes, pays out money 
on the order of the commissioners, distributes their 
portion of the taxes to the treasurers of the town- 
ships, towns, and cities, and keeps a record of the 
same. The clerk of the district court keeps a 
record of the cases filed and tried in that court. 
The register of deeds keeps a record of the deeds 
and mortgages given. The assessor makes a 
list of the property to be taxed and fixes the value 
of it. The superintendent has oversight of the 



THE COUNTY 101 

schools ill the county that are outside of cities of 
the first class. The surveyor makes the surveys 
for roads, l^ridges, and county buildings. 

Excise Board. — The excise board is composed 
of county clerk, county treasurer, county judge, 
county superintendent, and county attorney, who 
serve without additional compensation. On the 
last Saturday of July this board meets and exam- 
ines the estimates of the expenses of the county 
and of each school district, township, incorporated 
town, and city in the county. When it has ap- 
proved the estimates, it makes the levy therefor, 
and certifies the amount to the county assessor, 
who places it upon the tax roll. 

County Judiciary. — The county judge may try 
civil cases where the arnount in controversy is 
not more than one thousand dollars, has criminal 
jurisdiction the same as a justice of the peace, 
and has probate jurisdiction. There are six jus- 
tices of the peace in each county, but the num- 
ber may be increased if the population w^arrants 
it. Justices have the right to try civil cases 
where the amount involved does not exceed two 
hundred dollars, and criminal cases where the fine 
does not exceed two hundred dollars, or the pun- 
ishment thirty days in jail. They may also hold 



192 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

preliminary hearings in more serious offenses and 
have the parties held for trial in higher courts. 
Justices may hold inquests. Some counties have 
a superior court which has concurrent jurisdic- 
tion with the district court ; also with the count}^ 
court, except that it has no probate jurisdiction. 
Offices Consolidated. — On the first Monday 
in January, 1915, the offices of clerk of the district 
court, county court clerk, and superior court clerk 
(where there is a superior court) shall be combined 
into one office known as court clerk. At the 
same time the office of register of deeds shall be 
combined with that of county clerk and be known 
as county clerk. 

Questions. Were there counties in Oklahoma and 
Indian Territory before statehood ? How many coun- 
ties were formed when Oklahoma became a state ? By 
whom? How many new counties have been formed 
since statehood ? Name and locate one. What officers 
constitute the legislature of the county? What duties 
have they? Name the executive officers of a county. 
State their duties. What judicial officers has a county ? 
What jurisdiction has each court? What is meant by 
jurisdiction? What county offices have been com- 
bined ? Why ? What is an inquest ? 

Written Work. Make a list of the names of the 
county officers in your county, giving the salary of each. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 193 

LESSON 7 

GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 

Admission into the Union. — Congress has the 
power to admit states into the Union. The usual 
method is for Congress to pass an Act authorizing 
the territory to prepare and adopt a state consti- 
tution and at the same time elect state officers. 
Then Congress may approve the action of the 
territoiy and declare it a state, or the President 
may review the action of the territory and proclaim 
it a state. 

How Oklahoma was Admitted. — Congress 
passed an Enabling Act which was approved by 
the President; June 16, 1906. The two territories 
were divided into districts for the election of 
delegates to a constitutional convention. The 
delegates were elected November 6, 1906. The 
convention assembled November 20, 1906, and 
prepared a constitution. The constitution was 
submitted to the people for their approval Sep- 
tember 17, 1907, and at the same time state officers 
were elected. The President proclaimed Okla- 
homa a state November 16, 1907. 



194 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

Provisions of the Enabling Act. — The Enabling 
Act was an act or law passed by Congress, enabling 
the territories to form state governments. Some 
of its provisions were as follows : the constitutional 
convention was to consist of one hundred and 
twelve delegates; one hundred thousand dollars 
were given to pay the expenses of forming the 
state government ; one million and fifty thousand 
acres of land were given to the state besides what 
had already been given Oklahoma Territory ; five 
million dollars were given to the state's permanent 
school fund ; the state was to have two senators, 
and five members of the lower house of Congress 
until the next census ; there was to be prohibition 
of the sale of liquor for twenty-one years in the 
Indian Territory part of the state ; plural marriage 
was forever prohibited ; religious toleration was not 
to be infringed upon ; and the right of suffrage 
was not to be abridged on account of race, color, 
or previous condition of servitude. 

Constitutional Convention. — The convention 
was in session from November 20, 1906, until 
July 16, 1907, except for a recess taken to give 
the committees time to arrange the constitution 
and another to await the decision of an injunc- 
tion suit against the convention. William H. 



BILL OF RIGHTS 195 

Murray was president of the convention, and John 
M. Young secretary. A num])er of delegates to 
this convention now hold, or have held, high posi- 
tions under the state government. 

Questions. What is the usual method of admitting 
states? Who has power to admit states? Give the 
steps by which Oklahoma was admitted. How much 
money did Congress give for the expense of forming 
the state government? How much money was given 
to the school fund ? How many acres of land were given 
to Oklahoma by the Enabling Act ? Had any land been 
given Oklahoma before? Tell something about what 
lands had been given. What was the new state forbid- 
,den to do? How many Congressmen were allowed 
the state? 



LESSON 8 

BILL OF RIGHTS 



Bill of Rights. — A bill of rights in a constitu- 
tion is a list of rights or privileges belonging to the 
people, which cannot be infringed upon or taken 
away from them by the government or the of- 
ficers of the state. The name has come down to 
us from the Bill of Rights enacted by the English 
Parliament in 16(S9. The Constitution of the 



196 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

United States when first made contained no Bill 
of Rights, but many of the people were dissatisfied 
with it on that account, and the Constitution was 
amended as soon as this could be done. The first 
ten amendments to the Constitution of the United 
States form a Bill of Rights. 

The Oklahoma Bill of Rights. — This bill is 
much longer than those of other constitutions 
and for that reason is much more complete. 
Besides enumerating the rights usuall}' found in 
other state constitutions, it contains a number of 
new features. The Bill of Rights is Article II 
of the constitution and contains thirty-three 
sections. 

Trial Jury. — Juries in county and justice courts 
shall consist of six men ; juries in higher courts, 
twelve men. In civil cases, and in criminal cases 
less than felonies, three-fourths of the whole 
number of jurors concurring have the power to 
render a verdict. In all other cases all the jurors 
must agree in order to render a verdict. 

Habeas Corpus. — The authorities of Okla- 
homa cannot suspend the writ of habeas corpus 
under any circumstances. The authorities of the 
United States can suspend the writ in case of 
rebellion or when the public safety demands it. 



BILL OF RIGHTS 197 

A writ of habeas corpus demands that a person 
held in custody be l)rought into (!Ourt for the 
authorities to show why he is being held. 

Contempt of Court. — When a person is accused 
of committing an act of contempt of court when 
not in the presence of the court, he shall be given 
a trial ])y juiy, lief ore being fined or punished. 
The three rights mentioned are new rules on these 
subjects. 

Usual Rights. — The Bill of Rights also states 
that all political power belongs to the people; 
all persons have the right to life, liberty, the pur- 
suit of happiness, and the enjoyment of the gains 
of their industry ; have the right peaceably to 
assemble for their own good and be secure in their 
persons, houses, and papers against unreasonable 
searches or seizures. State officers must give 
their personal attention to the duties of their 
offices. Courts of justice shall be open to every 
person. No person shall be deprived of life, 
liberty, or property, without due pi'ocess of 
law. 

The right of trial ])y jury shall not be violated. 
Private property shall not be taken for public use 
without due compensation. Many other rights 
are enumerated in the state constitution. 



198 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

Questions. What is a bill of rights? What can 
you say about the Oklahoma Bill of Rights? Compare 
the state and the federal constitutions, on the writ of 
habeas corpus. What is a felony? How many jurors 
in a justice court? In a county court? In a higher 
court? What is a verdict? How many jurors must 
concur to render a verdict? What is contempt of 
court? What other rights mentioned? Where would 
you look for the United States Bill of Rights ? 



LESSON 9 

LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 

Division of Powers. — The powers of the state 
government are divided among three departments : 
legislative, executive, and judicial. The intent 
is to have each of these branches of government as 
separate and distinct from the others as prac- 
ticable. 

Legislative Authority. — The lawmaking au- 
thority of the state is vested in a legislature con- 
sisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, 
but the people reserve to themselves the right to 
make laws and amendments to the constitution 
and to reject laws passed by the legislature. 



, LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 199 

The Senate. — The constitution provides for 
forty-four senators to be elected by the voters of 
the districts, but there may be additional senators. 
The term is four years. One-half of the senators 
are elected every two years at the general election. 
Senators must be twenty-five years of age, and 
must be qualified to vote in their districts and 
must continue to live in their districts. The 
lieutenant governor is president of the Senate, 
but has no vote except in case of a tie. The 
Senate elects one of its members president pro 
tempore to preside when the lieutenant governor 
is absent. 

House of Representatives. — The number of 
representatives is not made definite, but will 
always be more than one hundred. The term is 
two years, and the representatives are elected in 
even-numbered years. Representatives must be 
twenty-one years of age, voters of their districts, 
and must continue to live in their districts. The 
House elects a speaker from its own members to 
preside over that body. 

Powers of Each House. — Each House is judge 
of the election of its members, makes its own rules, 
and provides necessary clerks, sergeants at arms, 
and other assistants. 



200 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

Salary. — Members of the legislature receive 
six dollars per day during the sessions of the legis- 
lature, provided the sessions are not longer than 
sixty days. They receive only two dollars a day 
after sixty days have elapsed. 

Vacancies, Quorum. — In case of a vacancy, the 
governor shall call an election to fill the vacancy. 
It takes a majority of the members elected to each 
House to make a quorum. 

How a Bill May Become a Law. — In regular 
course, a bill to become a law must pass both 
Houses and be signed by the governor. If the 
governor refuses to sign a bill, it may become a law 
without his signature by passing both Houses by 
a two-thirds vote. If the governor retains a bill 
five days, it becomes a law, unless the legislature 
adjourns within that time. In order to pass either 
House, a bill must receive the votes of a majority 
of the members elected to that House. 

Emergency Legislation. — Laws that are passed 
by the legislature do not go into effect until ninety 
days after the adjournment of the session at which 
they are passed, unless the legislature by a two- 
thirds vote declares the law to be an emergency 
law, in which case it goes into effect as soon as 
approved by the governor. 



INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM 201 

Sessions. — The legislature meets regularly 
once every two years, but the governor may call 
special sessions. It meets on the first Tuesday 
after the first Monday in January, in the year 
after the election. 

Questions. Name the three departments of state 
government. What is the lawmaking power vested in? 
How many mem])ers in each House? How elected? 
State the qualifications of members of each House. 
What is the salary of the members of the legislature? 
How long is a session? What is necessary to make a 
quorum? How may a bill become a law? What is 
an emergency law ? How passed ? How are vacancies 
in each House filled? State whether the legislature 
alone can make laws in Oklahoma. How often does 
the legislature meet? When? 



LESSON 10 

INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM 

Direct Legislation. — Oklahoma is one of the 
few states that have direct control over the law- 
making of the state. Sometimes legislatures 
fail to pass some law that the people want. In 
Oklahoma the people can make laws that the 
majority of the people wish made. Sometimes 
legislatures pass laws that the people do not want. 



202 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

In this state the people can reject the law passed 
by the legislature^ unless the legislature, by a two- 
thirds vote, has declared it an emergency. Where 
the people have the right to make laws, the legis- 
lature is apt to be more careful to make laws that 
the people want. 

Initiative. — Initiative as applied to lawmaking 
means proposing a law. To initiate a law in the 
state, it is necessary for eight per cent of the legal 
voters of the state to sign a petition that the law 
be made. When eight per cent of the voters have 
signed the petition, it is filed with the secretary of 
state. The governor then orders an election on 
the question of the proposed law. If a majority 
of the voters vote in favor of the question, it be- 
comes a law. Fifteen per cent of the legal voters 
is required to initiate an amendment to the consti- 
tution, but only a majority vote is necessary to 
carry the proposition. To initiate a measure in a 
county, city, or township, it is necessary for the 
petition to be signed by twenty-five per cent of 
the legal voters of the county, or of the city, or of 
the township. 

Referendum. — Referendum means an election 
on a proposition. The legislature may pass a 
measure and order a referendum on it. If the 



INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM 203 

legislature passes a law that is objectionable, 
the people can ask that the law be referred to 
them, for their approval or rejection. In such a 
case, it would require a petition to that effect, 
signed by five per cent of the legal voters of the 
state. If the majority vote against the question, 
it is rejected. Petitions calling for a referendum 
on a law passed by the legislature must be filed 
within ninety days after the adjournment of the 
session of the legislature at which the law was 
passed. A referendum cannot be demanded on 
an emergency measure. A referendum may be 
demanded on one or more parts of a measure passed 
by the legislature. 

Amendments to the Constitution. — Amend- 
ments may be proposed or initiated by fifteen per 
cent of the legal voters of the state. They may 
also be proposed by the legislature by a majority 
vote. An amendment must always be referred 
to the people, and a majority vote is necessaiy 
to carry it. The legislature by a two-thirds vote 
may order a special election on a proposed amend- 
ment. The governor may order a special election 
on an initiative question. If a special election is 
not called, the question is voted upon at the next 
general election. 



204 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

Repeal, Veto. — The legislature can repeal an 
initiated law, but it is not likely to do so unless the 
people have apparently changed their minds on 
the matter and seem to want it repealed. 

The governor cannot veto an initiated measure. 
If the people vote in favor of a law, one man, even 
if he be the governor, should not be able to defeat 
the law. 

Questions. What is direct legislation? Of what 
advantage is it? What is meant by initiative? How 
may a law be initiated? An amendment? What 
per cent is required to initiate a law in a city ? Explain 
the referendum. In what ways may a referendum be 
ordered? In what time must the referendum be de- 
manded on acts of the legislature? State whether the 
referendum can be demanded on emergency laws. 
How may amendments be made to the constitution? 
Who can repeal initiated laws? Why? State whether 
the governor can veto them. 



LESSON 11 

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 

The Executive Officers of the state are : gov- 
ernor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, 
auditor, attorney general, treasurer, superintend- 
ent of public instruction, examiner and inspector, 



EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 205 

chief mine inspector, la])or commissioner, com- 
missioner of charities and corrections, commis- 
sioner of insurance, bank commissioner, president 
of the board of agriculture, pubhc health com- 
missioner, and corporation commissioners. There 
are a number of important boards : board of edu- 
cation, board of agriculture, board of affairs, 
banking board, boai'd of pardons, and commis- 
sioners of the land office. 

The Governor is the chief executive officer of the 
state. It is his duty to see that the laws are 
enforced. He must be thirty years of age, a citizen 
of the United States, and must have been a qualified 
elector of the state for three years. He is elected 
by the people, for a term of four years, and cannot 
immediately succeed himself. The term begins 
the second Monday in January, following the 
election. 

The Lieutenant Governor is the president of the 
Senate. He is acting governor during the absence 
of the governor from the state, and, in case of 
death, resignation, or removal of the governor, he 
succeeds him in office. He must have the same 
qualifications for office as the governor, and is 
elected at the same time for the same term. He 
may succeed himself in office. 



206 



OKLAHOMA CIVICS 




The Secretary of State has charge of and pul)- 
lishes the state laws. He keeps a record of the 
official acts of the governor. 
He is custodian of the great 
seal of the state. He issues 
certificates of incorporation 
and receives the initiative and 
referendum petitions. His 
qualifications and term are 
the same as those of the governor. He cannot 
succeed himself. 

The State Auditor examines accounts and 
claims against the state. He draws warrants on 
the treasurer to pay the bills of the state and he 
keeps a record of the accounts paid^ which should 
agree with the treasurer's books. His qualifica- 
tions and term are the same as those of the gov- 
ernor. He cannot succeed himself. 

The State Treasurer has charge of all mone}^ 
l3elonging to the state. He can pay out money 
only on warrants issued by the state auditor, and 
there must be a law for such payments. His 
qualifications and term are those of the governor. 
He cannot succeed himself. 

The Attorney General is the legal adviser of the 
state officers. He serves as counsel for the state 



EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 207 

in civil and criminal cases, and prosecutes certain 
criminal cases where county attorneys fail to do 
their duty. His term and qualifications are the 
same as those of the governor. He may succeed 
himself. 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction has 
general supervision over the entire public school 
system of the state and is president of the State 
Board of Education. His qualifications and term 
are the same as those of the governor. 

The State Examiner and Inspector must examine 
at least twice each year the books and cash of the 
state treasurer and of the county treasurers, and 
must prescribe a uniform system of bookkeeping 
for all of the treasurers. He must have the same 
qualifications as the governor, and must have had 
at least three years' experience as expert account- 
ant. His term is four years. 

The Chief Mine Inspector examines the mines 
and mining machinery of the state, to see that the 
proper precautions are taken for the safet}^ and 
health of the operators. He must have had at 
least eight years' actual experience as a practical 
miner. His term is four years. 

The Commissioner of Labor must settle dif- 
ferences l)etween employers of labor and their 



208 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

employees^ and improve the conditions of the 
laboring classes. His term is four years. 

The Insurance Commissioner requires insurance 
companies which operate in the state to comply 
with the insurance laws, and suspends unsafe com- 
panies from doing business in the state. He must 
be at least twenty-five years of age and well versed 
in insurance. His term is four years. 

Questions. What is meant by executive? What 
are the qualifications of the chief executive? His 
duties? State the duties and qualifications of Heuten- 
ant governor. What is the work of the secretary of 
state? Of the auditor? What state officers cannot 
immediately succeed themselves? Why not? What 
are the duties of the state treasurer? Of the attorney 
general? Of the state superintendent? What state 
officers must have the same qualifications that a gov- 
ernor has? State the duties of examiner. Of mine 
inspector. Of commissioner of labor. Of insurance 
commissioner. Who now holds each of these offices 
about which you have studied? 



EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 209 

LESSON 12 
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT (Concluded) 

The Commissioner of Charities looks after the 
conditions of the charitable and penal institutions 
of the state, to see that the inmates receive proper 
treatment. The commissioner must be twenty- 
five years of age, and may be either male or female. 
The term is four 3^ears. 

The Bank Commissioner has oversight of the 
state banks. He requires reports from them at 
least once each quarter, and takes charge of any 
state bank that he deems unsafe, and settles up its 
affairs. 

The Commissioner of Health has supervision of 
the health officers of the state. He sees that the 
health regulations of the state are observed and 
issues orders necessary to check epidemics or the 
spread of contagious diseases. 

The President of the Board of Agriculture 
besides presiding over the meetings of the board, 
supervises the stock inspectors. He enforces 
animal quarantine rules and promotes the interests 
of farmers and stock raisers. His term is four 
years. 



210 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

Corporation Commissioners are elected for a 
term of six years. There are three commissioners, 
one being elected every two years at the general 
election. They must be thirty years of age and 
resident citizens for two years and must not own 
any interest in any corporation. It is their duty 
to see that transportation and transmission com- 
panies, such as railroads and telephone companies, 
are not unjust and unfair in their rates, and that 
they provide proper facilities. 

The Board of Agriculture is the board of re- 
gents of the A. & M. College and the six state 
agricultural schools. Besides its duties in refer- 
ence to these schools, its work is to study and 
recommend methods to improve farming and 
stock raising, to check the spread of diseases 
among stock, and to aid in destroying insects 
which injure crops. It also has charge of the 
animal quarantine laws. 

The State Board of Education is the board of 
regents of all the state schools except the agricul- 
tural schools, and, as such, it controls those schools 
and elects their faculties. It selects textbooks for 
the public schools of the state, adopts courses of 
study, makes rules governing certificates, prepares 
examination questions for city and county teachers, 



EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 211 

and examines applicants for state certificates. 
The Board consists of the state superintendent 
and six other members appointed by the governor. 

The Board of Public Affairs consists of three 
members appointed by the governor, not more than 
two of whom may belong to the same political 
party. The board has charge of the construction 
and repair of all public buildings and purchases all 
supplies for the state. 

The Banking Board consists of the governor and 
two persons experienced in banking. This board 
makes rules governing state banks and has charge 
of the Guaranty Bank Funds. 

The Commissioners of the Land Office have 
charge of the sale and rental of school lands and 
other lands belonging to the state. They also 
have charge of the loaning of the state school fund. 
The members of the board are the governor, 
secretary, auditor, superintendent of public in- 
struction, and president of the board of agriculture. 

The State Capitol Commission is a board con- 
sisting of three members chosen by the state legis- 
lature for the purpose of building a state capitol 
at Oklahoma City. They shall hold office until 
the capitol is completed, or until removed by the 
legislature. 



212 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

The Board of Prison Control consists of three 
members appointed by the governor with the con- 
sent of the Senate. It appoints a warden and other 
officers for the state penitentiary and for the 
reformatory; examines into appHcations for par- 
dons, paroles, reprieves, and commutations ; and 
has control of the penal institutions of the state. 

Questions. What is the work of the commissioner of 
charities ? What is a penal institution ? What are the 
duties of the bank commissioner ? The banking board ? 
What is the Guaranty Fund ? State the work of the 
commissioner of health. Of the president of the board 
of agriculture. Of the board of agriculture. Of what 
does the board of agriculture consist? How many 
corporation commissioners? What is their work? 
What is the work of the board of education? How 
many members of the board? How chosen? Work 
of the board of prison control? Purpose of the state 
capitol commission ? How many members on the board 
of pubhc affairs ? How chosen ? Work of that board ? 
Make a list of the persons now holding the offices men- 
tioned in this lesson. 



JUDICIAL DP]PARTMENT 213 

LESSON 13 

JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

The State Courts. — The judicial department 
of the state consists of a supreme court, supreme 
court commissioners, a criminal court of appeals, 
district courts, county courts, justice of the peace 
courts, police courts, and in some counties superior 
courts. 

The Senate may sit as a court of impeachment to 
try state officers against whom the House of Rep- 
resentatives has preferred charges of misconduct 
in office. The Senate cannot punish further than 
to remove from office. Senators and Representa- 
tives cannot be impeached. Each House of the 
legislature tries its own members. 

The Supreme Court. — This court consists of 
five judges elected for a term of six years ; two are 
elected at one general election, two at the next, 
and one at the succeeding election. Each su- 
preme court justice is in turn chief justice for one 
year. The supreme court has original and ap- 
pellate jurisdiction, but the most of its work is 
appellate ; that is, it retries cases that have been 
tried in lower courts. There is no jury in trials 



214 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

before the supreme court. There is a supreme 
court clerk, elected by the people for four years. 
He keeps the records of the supreme court and also 
of the criminal court of appeals. 

Supreme Court Commission. — The legislature 
in 1911 authorized the supreme court to appoint 
six commissioners who are to assist the supreme 
court in their work. Their term is two years. 

The Criminal Court of Appeals. — This court 
consists of three judges elected for six years; 
one is elected every two years. It has appellate 
jurisdiction only, and tries criminal cases appealed 
from district, county, and superior courts. It has 
no juiy. 

District Courts. — The legislature in 1911 di- 
vided the state into twenty-six judicial districts. 
At present (1914) there are twenty-seven districts 
and thirty-one judges. The district judges are 
elected for four years. District courts have juris- 
diction in civil and criminal cases. They have 
both original and appellate jurisdiction. Orig- 
inal jurisdiction means the right to try a case the 
first time it is tried. Appellate jurisdiction means 
the right to tiy a case that has been tried in a lower 
court. District courts may try cases that have 
been tried in justice or city courts. 



JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 215 

Superior Court. — There is now a superior 
court in each county having a population of 33,000 
or more, and containing a city with a population 
of 12,000 or more. This court has jurisdiction 
concurrent with the district and county courts, 
except that it does not have probate or juvenile 
jurisdiction. The judge is elected for four years. 

After the first Monday in January, 1915, there 
will be a superior court in each county having a 
population of not less than 33,000 and not more 
than 75,000, containing a city of not less than 
15,000; also in each county of from 33,000 to 
75,000 containing a city of from 12,000 to 15,000 
where a superior court is now held in some other 
city than the county seat. 

County Court. — Each county has a county 
judge who is elected as the other county officers 
are for a term of two years. As has already been 
stated, under the discussion of county government, 
the county court has jurisdiction over civil cases 
involving not more than one thousand dollars, and 
over criminal actions where the fine does not 
exceed two hundred dollars, or imprisonment 
in the county jail for thirty days. This court 
may hold preliminary examinations and cause the 
party to be tried in a higher court. The county 



216 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

judge also holds juvenile court and has jurisdic- 
tion over the property of deceased persons. 

Justice Courts. — The county commissioners 
were authorized to divide the county into six 
justice districts. One justice is elected from each, 
but the commissioners may allow an additional 
justice to each district. Justices have jurisdiction 
over civil cases up to two hundred dollars, and over 
criminal cases, the same as a county judge. 

Police Courts have jurisdiction over violations 
of city ordinances. 

Questions. Name in order the courts of the state's 
judicial system. Of what does the supreme court con- 
sist? Jurisdiction of that court? Number of judges? 
How often elected? Who chooses the supreme court 
commissioners? What is their work? How many 
judges in the criminal court of appeals? Its jurisdic- 
tion? What is meant by jurisdiction? Appellate? 
Original? How many district courts in the state? 
Length of term? Jurisdiction? What counties have 
superior courts? Jurisdiction of superior courts? 
What is the work of county courts ? Of justice courts ? 
Of police courts? Name the judges of the supreme 
court. The judge of the district court of the district 
in which you Hve. 



ELECTIONS 217 

LESSON 14 
ELECTIONS 

Time of Elections. — General elections for the 
purpose of electing United States Senators, mem- 
bers of the lower House of Congress, and state 
legislative, and county officers are held the first 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November of 
even-numbered years. City elections are held on 
the first Tuesday in April. Primary elections are 
held the first Tuesday in August of even-numbered 
years. Special elections may be called by the 
governor. 

Voters. — Qualified electors are male citizens 
of the United States, twenty-one years of age, who 
have resided in the state one year, in the county 
six months, and in the election precinct thirty days. 
Persons in the poorhouse cannot vote unless they 
are ex-Federal or ex-Confederate soldiers. No 
person can vote unless he is able to read and write 
any section of the Constitution. But persons who 
could vote before Januaiy 1, 1866, or their lineal 
descendants, cannot be prevented from voting 
on account of not }:)eing al)le to read and write. 



218 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

Election Precincts. — The township and the city 
ward are often taken as voting precincts or dis- 
tricts, but they may be divided into two or more 
precincts. There can be only one voting place in a 
precinct. The precinct should be small enough to 
allow the voters time to vote. Voting places are 
selected by the county election board. 

Election Boards. — The state election board 
consists of three members : two appointed by 
the governor, the third is the secretary of the 
state senate, and is also secretary of the election 
board. No more than two of them can belong 
to the same political party. The county election 
board consists of three members. The member 
who is to be secretary is chosen by the state elec- 
tion board and the two leading political parties 
each select one. The county election board selects 
three qualified voters in each precinct to be the 
precinct election board. No more than two of 
them can belong to the same political party. 

Duties of Election Boards. — The state election 
board prepares the ballots, canvasses the returns, 
and issues certificates of election, in case of state 
elections or elections from districts not a subdivi- 
sion of a county. The county election board 
prepares the ballots, canvasses the returns, and 



ELECTIONS 219 

issues certificates of election, in case of county 
elections or elections in subdivisions of a county. 

The precinct board holds the election in the pre- 
cinct and delivers the returns to the county board. 
Before the election four counters are chosen by the 
precinct board. No more than three of the 
counters can l^elong to the same party. They 
begin to count the ballots at ten o'clock on the 
morning of the election. 

Registration. — In cities of the first class all 
voters who wish to vote must register before the 
election and receive a certificate of registration. 
Registration books are open during the month of 
July. This is to give the voters a chance to register 
before the primary election. 

Mandatory Primary. — All candidates of politi- 
cal parties must be chosen at a primary election. 
The primary election is under the control of the 
regular election boards. Any person who wants 
his name on a primary ballot must present a 
petition to the election board that prepares the 
ballots for that office. 

Ballots. — The ballots for the general election 
are on white paper. The candidates of all the 
parties are on one ballot. All of the candidates 
of one party are in the same column. At the pri- 



220 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

maiy election, the candidates of each party are on 
a separate ballot. The ballots of each party are 
on different colored paper. Each voter is given 
the ballot of his party. 

Forms of ballots are shown on page 221. 

Questions. Why are elections held? What is the 
time of the general election? Of the primary election? 
What are the qualifications of voters? What is an 
election precinct? How large should it be? How 
is the state election board chosen ? What are the duties 
of that board? How is the county election board 
chosen? What are its duties? How is the precinct 
board chosen ? What are its duties ? When are voters 
required to register? Why? What does it mean to 
register? What is meant by a mandatory primary? 
What difference between the primary and the general 
election ballot? 



LESSON 15 

TAXATION 



Need of Taxes. — A tax is money paid for the 
support of the state. It takes money to keep up a 
government. Money is required for roads^ 
bridges, and school buildings. Until people im- 
prove, a great deal of money will be needed for 



t>bV10CRATIC 




Sample Ballot, Genera) Election 

Hel)t,otl»5*tl^«(«g.»tT,l.., MIZ. 

Watd 2, Cfty o< Edniond Oklahyma County 



., „ 


^ 


^1 




("'] 


o 




n 




:G :gg 

r- 


n r 





221 



222 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

jails and penitentiaries. A good government is a 
blessing. Right-minded people are willing to 
bear the expense. 

Assessment. — Most people think the expense 
of government should be distributed according to 
the ability of the people to bear it. Most of our 
state and local taxes are based on the value of 
property. In order to collect taxes in that way 
it is necessary to have a value placed upon the 
property. The officer who makes a list of the 
property and fixes the value is the assessor. In 
Oklahoma the property is assessed by a county 
assessor. The property should be assessed at its 
actual cash value. 

Levying Taxes. — To levy taxes means to fix 
a rate to be collected on the assessed value. The 
district school tax is levied by the people at the 
annual school meeting. The township tax ' is 
levied by the township board. The incorporated 
town tax is levied by the board of trustees. The 
city tax is levied by the city council. The school 
tax in the cities of the first class is levied by the 
board of education. The county tax is levied 
by the county commissioners. The state tax is 
levied under the authority of the state legislature. 
In each county is an excise board which reviews 



TAXATION 223 

all the levies made in the county and makes the 
necessary corrections. 

Collecting Taxes. — After the assessor has listed 
and valued the property he turns the list over to 
the county clerk, to be reviewed by the county 
commissioners. The excise board reports the 
levies to the county assessor, who makes out a 
tax roll which he turns over to the county treas- 
urer. The county treasurer collects the taxes 
and pays out to the treasurer of each township, 
of each incorporated town, and of each city, 
the money due each township, town, and city. 
He pays the bills against the county and sends 
to the state the money due the state from that 
county. 

When Taxes are Due. — Taxes are due Novem- 
ber 1. If the first one-half of the taxes is paid 
before December 15, the other one-half may re- 
main unpaid for six months, but must be paid 
before June 15, following the date when due. 

Special Taxes. — Various special taxes are also 
collected in this state. Cities and towns require 
a license for certain kinds of business. Persons 
who have an income above $3500 a year are liaJDle 
to a tax. Property that passes by inheritance 
is taxed ; persons having above a certain amount of 



224 OKLAHOMA CIVICS 

land must pay a special tax ; corporations are taxed 
on their receipts. A poll tax on males between 
twenty-one and fifty years of age is collected. 

Exemptions. — There is property upon which 
taxes are not collected. Property used for schools, 
for religious purposes, for free libraries, and prop- 
erty belonging to the United States, the state, 
counties, and cities is exempt from taxation. 
Heads of families are allowed household goods and 
tools to the value of one hundred dollars free from 
tax. Ex-Federal and ex-Confederate soldiers are 
exempt to the extent of two hundred dollars if 
they are the heads of families. 

Questions. What is a tax? Why is it necessary to 
pay taxes? What is meant by ad valorem taxes? 
What is meant by assessing ? Who assesses property 
in this state? What is meant by levying taxes? 
Who levies the various kinds of taxes? Who makes 
out the tax roll? To whom are taxes paid? When 
are taxes due ? When may they be paid ? What does 
the county treasurer do with the taxes he collects? 
What special taxes are collected in this state? Who 
is liable to poll tax? What is an income tax? 



APPENDIX A 



TERRITORIAL OFFICERS 



GOVERNORS OF OKLAHOMA 



George W. Steele 
A. J. Seay 
W. C. Renfrew 
CM. Barnes . 
W. M. Jenkins 
T. B. Ferguson 
Frank Frantz . 



May 22, 1890 to Oct. 18, 1891 
Oct. 18, 1891 to May 7, 1893 
May 7, 1893 to May 24, 1897 
May 24, 1897 to Apr. 15, 1901 
Apr. 15, 1901 to Nov. 30, 1901 
Nov. 30, 1901 to Jan. 5, 1906 
Jan. 6, 1906 to Nov. 16, 1907 



DELEGATES TO CONGRESS 

David A. Harvey 
Dennis T. Flynn 
James Y. Callahan 
Dennis T. Flynn 
Bird S. McGuire 



Nov. 5, 1890 to Mar. 4, 1893 

Mar. 4, 1893 to Mar. 4, 1897 

Mar. 4, 1897 to Mar. 4, 1899 

Mar. 4, 1899 to Mar. 4, 1903 



Mar. 4, 1903 to Nov. 16, 1907 

TRIBAL GOVERNORS AT STATEHOOD 

Cherokee Nation .... William C. Rogers 

Green McCurtain 
Douglas H. Johnson 
Moty Tiger 



Choctaw Nation 
Chickasaw Nation 
Creek Nation . 
Seminole Nation 



John F. Brown 



POPULATION OF FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES 

1847 1857 

Cherokees 18,000 21,709 

Chickasaws 6,500 5,822 

225 



226 



APPENDIX A 



Seminoles 
Choctaws 
Creeks 



1847 1857 

2,500 

16,000 22,707 

22,207 27,757 



AREA OF OPENINGS 



Old Oklahoma .... 

No Man's Land .... 
Iowa, Sac and Fox, and Pottawatomie 
Cheyenne and Arapahoe . 
Cherokee Outlet 

Kickapoo 

Greer County .... 

Kiowa and Comanche 

Big Pasture .... 



Acres 
1,877,800 
3,681,000 
1,281,434 
4,297,771 
6,014,239 

206,662 
1,511,576 
4,000,000 

505,000 



FIRST STATE OFFICERS 

Governor, Charles N. Haskell 

Lieutenant Governor, George W. Bellamy 

Secretary of State, William Cross 

Auditor, M. E. Trapp 

Attorney-General, Charles West 

Superintendent of Public Instruction, E. D. Cameron 

Treasurer, James Menefee 

Examiner and Inspector, Charles A. Taylor 

Commissioner of Labor, C. L. Daugherty 

Insurance Commissioner, J. T. McComb 

Chief Mine Inspector, Peter Hanraty 

Commissioner of Charities and Corrections, Kate Barnard 

State Printer, Clint Worral 

President of Board of Agriculture, J. P. Connor 



APPENDIX A 



227 



Corporation Coniiui.s.sioiit' 



Board of Affairs j 

Speaker of House 
of Representa- 
tives 



J. E. Love 

J. J. Mt'Alester 
[a. p. Watson 
Roy V. Hoffman 
R. J. Allen 
T. A. Chandler 

I First Legislature, Wm. H. Murray 
Second Legislature, Ben F. Wilson 
I Third Legislature, W. A. Durant 



Supreme Court Judges 



Robert L. Williams 
John B. Turner 
Matthew J. Kane 
Samuel W. Hayes 
Jesse J. Dunn 
Clerk of Supreme Court, W. H. L. Campbell 

f Henry M. Furman 
Judges of Criminal Court of Appeals I Thomas H. Doyle 

1h. G.Baker 



United States Senators 



United States 
Represent- 
atives 



United States 
District 
Courts 



Thomas P. Gore 
Robert L. Owen 
First District, Bird S. McGuire, 1907-1915 
Second f Elmer L. Fulton, 1907-1909 
District [DickT. Morgan, 1909-1915 

James S. Davenport, 1907-1909, 

1911-1915 
Charles S. Creager, 1909-1911 
Fourth District, Charles D. Carter, 1907-1915 
Fifth District, Scott Ferris, 1907-1915 

I Judge of Eastern District, Ralph E. Campbell 
I Judge of Western District, John H. Cottoral 



Third 
District 



APPENDIX B 



STATE OFFICERS (1914) 

UNITED STATES SENATORS 



$7500 



Robert L. Owen 



Thomas P. Gore 



UNITED STATES REPRESENTATIVES 



First District . 
Second District 
Thii'd District . 
Fourth District 
Fifth District . 

At Large 



$7500 

Bird S. McGuire 

Dick T. Morgan 

James S. Davenport 

Charles D. Carter 

Scott Ferris 

( William H. Murray 

Joe B. Thompson 

Claude Weaver 



EXECUTIVE OFFICERS 



Elective 



Governor, Lee Cruce $4500 

Lieutenant Governor, J. J. McAlester . . . 1000 
Secretary of State, Benj. F. Harrison . . . 2500 
State Auditor, J. C. McClelland .... 2500 
Attorney-General, Charles West .... 4000 
State Treasurer, Robert Dunlop .... 3000 
Superintendent of Public Instruction, R. H. Wilson 2500 
Clerk of Supreme Court and Criminal Court of Ap- 
peals, W. H. L. Campbell 3000 

Examiner and Inspector, Fred Parkinson . . 3000 

Chief Mine Inspector, Ed Boyle .... 3000 

Labor Commissioner, Charles L. Daugherty . 2000 

228 



APPENDIX B 



229 



Commissioner of Charities and Corrections, Kate 

Barnard $2500 



Insurance Commissioner, A. L. Welch 
President of Board of Agriculture, G. T. Bryan 

f J. E. Love 
Corporation Commissioners A. P. Watson 

i George A. Henshaw 



2500 
2500 
4000 
4000 
4000 



John 



R. 



$4000 
1800 
1500 

3300 
2000 
1800 
2100 
2500 
2500 
1800 



Appointive 
Bank Commissioner, J. D. Lankford 
State Health Commissioner, Dr. J. C. Mahr 
State Librarian, S. 0. Daws 
Secretary of School Land Commissioners, 
Williams ....... 

State Reporter, Howard Parker 

Adjutant General, Frank M. Canton 

Secretary of State Election Board, Ben F. Riley 

State Fire Marshal, C. C. Hammond 

State Highway Commissioner, Sidney Suggs 

State Fish and Game Warden, John B. Doolin 

Secretary of Board of Agriculture, Ben F. Hennessey 1800 

Secretary of Board of Education, LesHe T. Huffman 2000 

State Factory Inspector, G. E. Warren . . 1500 

Grain Inspector, Henry Stauffacher . . . Fees 

Director of Geological Survey, D. W. Ohcrn . 2500 

State Chemist, Edwin DeBarr .... Fees 

R. H. Wilson, State Superintendent 

A. W. Duff 

B. H. Hester 
J. F. Warren 
Dr. F. H. Fite 
H. C. Potterf 
W. E. Rowsey 



Board of Education 
($6 per day and 
expenses) 



230 



APPENDIX B 



Board of Affairs 
(Salary $3000) 

State Election 
Board ($6 per 
day and expenses) 
State Capitol 
Commission 
(Salary $3000) 



Supreme Court 
(Salary $4000) 



Supreme Court 

Commission 
(Salary $3600) 



Criminal Court [ 

of Appeals 
(Salary $4000) ( 
State District Courts 



Superior Courts 
(Salary $3000) 



f L. M. Frame, Chairman 

E. B. Howard, Secretary 
[ E. E. Morris 

[ Ben. F. Riley, Chairman 

J. S. Morris, Secretary 
[ E. A. Haines 
[ W. B. Anthony 
{ Stephen A. Douglas 
[ Pat J. Goulding 

JUDICIAL OFFICERS 

John B. Turner, First District 
W. R. Bleakmore, Second District 
Matthew J. Kane, Third District 

F. E. Riddle, Fourth District 

R. H. Loofbourrow, Fifth District 

[ J. F. Sharp, Presiding 
Division I Judge 

No. 1 Chas. M. Thacker 

I George B. Rittenhouse 
Phil. D. Brewer, Presiding 
Division Judge 

No. 2 John B. Harrison 
C. A. Galbraith 
Jas. R. Armstrong, Presiding Judge 
Thomas H. Doyle 
Henry M. Furman 

. 27 Districts, 31 Judges . $3000 
Garfield County (cease Jan., 1915) 
Muskogee County 

Oklahoma County (cease Jan., 1915) 
Pittsburg County (cease Jan., 1915) 
Pottawatomie County 
Tulsa County 



APPENDIX B 



231 



Fourth Legislature, Senate, J. J. McAlester, President ex 
officio 
House of Representatives, J. H. Maxey, 

Speaker 
Judge Eastern District, Ralph E. 
United States Campbell 

District Courts Judge Western District, John H. 
Cotteral 
United States Land Offices, Guthrie and Woodward 



CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS, 1913-1923 



District No. 1 


District No. 2 


County 


Population 


County 


Population 


Ottawa . . . 


. 15,713 


Adair . . 


. . 10,535 


Delaware . . 


11,469 


Sequoyah . 


. . 25,005 


Craig . . . 


17,404 


Cherokee . 


. . 16,778 


Mayes . . . 


13,596 


Wagoner 


. . 22,086 


Nowata . . 


14,223 


Muskogee . 


. . 52,743 


Rogers . . . 


17,736 


Haskell 


. . 18,875 


Washington 


17,484 


Mcintosh . 


. . 20,961 


Tulsa . . . 


34,995 


Okmulgee . 


. . 21,115 


Pawnee 


17,332 






Osage . . . 


20,101 






District T 


^o. 3 


District 


r No. 4 


Le Flore . . 


29,127 


Creek . . . 


. 26,233 


Latimer . . 


11,321 


Lincoln . . 


. 34,779 


Pittsburg . . 


47,650 


Okfuskee . . 


. 19,995 


Atoka . . . 


13,808 


Seminole . . 


. 19,964 


Pushmataha . 


10,118 


Pottawatomie 


. 43,595 


McCurtain 


20,681 


Pontotoc . . 


. 24,331 



232 


APPENDIX B 




District No. 3 


(continued) 


District No. 4 


(continued) 


Choctaw . . 


21,862 


Hughes . . . 


. 24,040 


Bryan . . . 


29,854 


Johnston 


. 16,734 


Marshall . . 


. 11,619 


Coal .... 


. 15,817 


Carter . . . 


25,358 






Love . . . 


10,236 






District I 


Vo. 5 


District No. 6 


Logan . . . 


31,740 


Blaine . . . 


17,960 


Oklahoma . . 


85,232 


Kingfisher . . 


. 18,825 


Cleveland . . 


18,343 


Canadian . . 


. 23,501 


McClain . . 


15,659 


Caddo . . . 


. 35,685 


Garvin . . . 


26,545 


Grady . . . 


. 30,309 


Murray . . 


12,755 


Comanche . . 


41,489 


Payne . . . 


23,735 


Stephens . . 


22,252 






Jefferson . . 


17,430 






Cotton . . . 




District I 


^0. 7 


District I 


^0. 8 


EUis . . . 


15,375 


Cimarron . . 


4,553 


Dewey . 


14,132 


Texas . . . 


14,249 


Roger Mills . 


12,861 


Beaver . . . 


13,361 


Custer . . . 


23,231 


Harper . . . 


8,189 


Beckham . . 


19,969 


Woodward 


16,592 


Washita . . 


25,034 


Woods . . . 


17,567 


Kiowa . . . 


27,526 


Mayor . . . 


15,348 


Greer . . . 


16,449 


Alfalfa . . . 


18,138 


Jackson . . 


23,737 


Grant . . . 


18,760 


Harmon . . 


11,328 


Garfield . . 


33,050 


Tillman . . 


18,650 


Kay ... . 


26,999 






Noble . . . 


14,945 



APPENDIX C 

STATE INSTITUTIONS (1914) 

EDUCATIONAL 

{Under Control of Board of Education) 

University of Oklahoma, Norman, Stratton D. Brooks. 
Central State Normal School, Edmond, Charles Evans. 
Northwestern Normal School, Alva, Grant Grumbine. 
Southwestern Normal School, Weatherford, U. J. Griffith. 
Northeastern Normal School, Tahlequah, G. W. Gable. 
Southeastern Normal School, Durant, E. D. Murdaugh. 
East Central Normal School, Ada, Charles W. Briles. 
State Institute of Technology, Tonkawa, Lynn Glover. 
Eastern University Preparatory School, Claremore, J. H. 



School of Mines, Wilburton, E. P. Barrett, acting. 
Oklahoma CoUege for Women, Chickasha, J. B. Eskridge. 
School for the Deaf, Sulphur, Frank Read. 
School for the Blind, Muskogee, 0. W. Stewart. 
Training School for Boys, Pauls Valley, E. B. Nelson. 
Institution for Feeble Minded, Enid, Dr. W. L. Kendall. 
The State Home, Pry or, Gid Graham. 
Colored A. & N. University, Langston, Inman E. Page. 
Colored Orphans Home, Taft, J. R. Johnson, acting. 

AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS 

{Under Control of Board of Agriculture) 

Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater. 
Murray School of Agriculture, Tishomingo, R. N. McCool. 

233 



234 



APPENDIX C 



Connell School of Agriculture, Helena, Sam Gaskill. 
Haskell School of Agriculture, Broken Arrow, E. B. Hinshaw. 
Conner School of Agriculture, Warner, W. S. Rennick. 
Panhandle School of Agriculture, Goodwell, S. W. Black. 
Cameron School of Agriculture, Lawton, Robert Short. 

CHARITABLE 

Hospital for Insane, Norman, W. D. Griffin, Supt. $2000. 
Hospital for Insane, Fort Supply, E. G. Newell, Supt. $2000. 
Hospital for Insane, Vinita, Supt. $2000. 
Confederate Home, Ardmore, John B. Gait. 

PENAL 

State Reformatory, Granite, C. A. Reed, Warden, $2000. 
State Penitentiary, McAlester, R. W. Dick, Warden, $2500. 



POPULATION 
1890 1900 1907 1910 



Oklahoma 


258,657 


790,391 


1,414,377 


1,657,155 


TEN LARGEST CI 


[TIE 


■5 (1910) 


Oklahoma Ci1 


ty . . . 




64,205 


Muskogee 
















25,278 


Tulsa . 
















18,182 


Enid . 
















13,799 


McAlester 
















12,954 


Shawnee 
















12,474 


Guthrie 
















11,654 


Chickasha 
















10,320 


Ardmore 
















8,618 


Sapulpa 
















8,283 



APPENDIX C 235 

SCHOOLS UNDER CHURCH CONTROL 

Harry Kendall College, Tulsa, Presbyterian. 

Bacone University, Muskogee, Baptist. 

Oklahoma Methodist University, Guthrie, Methodist. 

Phillips University, Enid, Christian. 

Oklahoma Wesleyan College, Britton, M. E. South. 

Kingfisher College, Kingfisher, Congregational. 

St. Joseph's Retreat, Guthrie, Catholic. 

Bethany College, Oklahoma City, Holiness. 

Blackwell College, Blackwell, Baptist. 

BOOKS OF REFERENCE 

' 'Journey of Coronado," G. P. Winship. 

''Thirty Years of Army Life," R. B. Marcy. 

"Tour of the Prairies," Washington Irving. 

"Evangeline," Henry W. Longfellow. 

"Historic Towns of Southern States" (Mobile, New Orleans), 

Lyman Powell. 
"Border Fights and Fighters," Part IV, C. T. Brady. 
"My Life on the Plains," G. A. Custer. 
"Louisiana" (pp. 1-252), Albert Phelps. 
"Aboriginal Races," Drake. 
"Letters and Notes on Indians," Catlin. 
"Texas," George P. Garrison. 
"Stories of Georgia," Joel Chandler Harris. 
"Historic Towns of the Western States" (Santa Fe), Fred 

Webb Hodge. 



INDEX 



Admission of Oklahoma, 193. 
Agriculture, 157. 
Amendments, 203. 
Anadarkos, 70. 
Annual school meeting, 175. 
Apaches, 70. 
Arapahoes, 70. 
Armstrong Academy, 56. 
Assassination of Boudinot, 30. 

of Ridge, 30. 
Assessor, 154, 190, 222. 
Attorney-General, 206, 228. 
Auditor, State, 206, 228. 

Ballots, 220, 221. 
Barnes, Governor, 134. 
Battles, Bird Creek, 45. 

Cabin Creek, 51. 

Honey Springs, 49. 

Old Fort Wayne, 47. 

Pea Ridge, 46, 54. 

Perryville, 50. 

Poison Springs, 50, 

Shoal Creek, 45. 

Washita, 75. 
Bean, Captain, 16. 
Benedict, John D., 165. 
Big Pasture, 108, 111, 136. 
Bill of Rights, 195. 
Black Kettle, 75. 
Blunt, General, 47, 49, 50. 
Boards, Agriculture, 210. 

Banking, 211. 

Capitol Commission, 211. 

City School, 187. 

Commissioners of Land Office, 
211. 



District School, 174. 

Education, 154, 210, 229. 

Election, 218, 230. 

Excise, 191, 222. 

Prison Control, 212. 

Public Affairs, 211, 230. 

Township, 179. 
Boudinot, Elias, 27, 30, 166. 

Col. E. C, 63, 83. 
Bradford, Major Wm., 14. 
Buffaloes, 74. 

Caddos, 70. 

Callahan, James Y., 134. 

Capitals of tribes, 119, 120, 122, 

123. 
Catlin, George, 16. 
Cherokee Advocate, 121, 166. 

Alphabet, 167. 

Nation West, 29. 

Outlet, 22, 68, 72, 98. 

United Nation, .30. 
Cherokees, 24-31, 42, 49, 119. 
Cheyennes, 70. 

Chickasaws, 35, 36, 42, 58, 124. 
Chief Joseph, 67. 
Chisholm TraU, 81. 
Choctaws, 34, 35, 36, 58, 123. 
Chouteau, A. P., 14. 
Cimarron Territory, 89. 
Cities, 161, 184-188. 
City officers, 185. 
CivU War, 41. 
Comanches, 71, 74. 
Commission government, 186. 
Commissioner of Charities, 209, 
229. 



237 



238 



INDEX 



Compulsory attendance, 177. 
Confederacy, 41, 145. 
Congressional districts, 231. 
Constitutional convention, 140, 

194. 
Cooper, Col. D. H., 45. 
Coronado, 4, 7, 18. 
Corporation Commissioners, 210, 

229. 
Couch, Captain W. L., 84. 
Counties, 153, 188, 189. 
County officers, 189. 
Courts, County, 191, 215. 

Criminal of Appeals, 214, 230. 

District, 214. 

Impeachment, 213. 

Justice, 191, 216. 

Juvenile, 216. 

Police, 185, 216. 

Superior, 215. 

Supreme, 150, 213, 230. 

Supreme Court Commission, 
214, 230. 
Crawford, Col., 75. 
Crazy Snake, 135. 
Creager, Charles S., 227. 
Creeks, 32, 33, 121. 
Cruce, Governor, 153, 154. 
Curtis Act, 126, 165. 
Curtis, General, 46. 
Custer, Gen. Geo. A., 76. 

Davenport, James S., 227, 228. 
Dawes Commission, 126, 127, 

128. 
Delawares, 66, 70. 
Delegates to Congress, 132, 134, 

136, 225. 
Drawing, 108. 

Education, 164. 
Elections, 141, 153, 217. 
Elliott, Major, 76. 
Emergency legislation, 200. 
Emory, Lieut. Col. W. H., 44. 



Enabling Act, 140, 194. 
Examiner and Inspector, 207. 

228. 
Exemptions, 224. 

Federal wagon train, 50. 
Ferguson, Governor, 135. 
Ferris, Scott, 227, 228. 
First State legislature, 151. 

Territorial convention, 129. 

Territorial legislature, 131. 
Flynn, Dennis, 134. 
Fort Arbuckle, 45. 

Belknap, 17. 

Cobb, 45 

Gibson, 15, 47. 

Leavenworth, 45. 

Reno, 76 

Sill, 76, 108. 

Smith, 15, 45, 50. 

Supply, 75. 

Towson, 15. 

Washita, 45. 

Wayne, 47. 
Foster, Judge C. G., 84. 
Fourth legislature, 155. 
Frantz, Governor, 136. 
Free Homes BUI, 135. 
Freedmen, 58. 
French explorers, 9-13. 
Fulton, Elmer L., 227. 
Fur trade, 11. 

Gano, General, 51. 

Georgia, 25, 32, 42. 

Glenn, Col. Hugh, 14. 

Gore, Thomas P., 149, 228. 

Government, 171-173. 

Governor, 205. 

Governors, State, 151, 153, 226. 

Territorial, 133, 134, 135, 136. 
225. 

Tribal, 225. 
Grandfather clause, 152. 
Great Seal, 206. 



INDEX 



239 



Greer County, lOG, 153. 
Guaranty Bank Law, 152. 
Guess, George (Sequoyah), 167. 
Guthrie, 130, 141, 149. 

Habeas Corpus, 196. 
Hamilton, Captain, 76. 
Harrison, President, 85. 
Harvey, David, 132. 
Haskell, Governor, 140, 142, 14S, 

151. 
House of Representatives, 199. 

Inauguration, First State, 149. 
Incorporated towns, 181. 
Indian Meridian, 94. 

Peace Compact, 53. 

Peace Council, 53-54. 

Schools, 164, 165. 

Territory, 24, 63, 118, 145. 
Initiative and referendum, 152, 

201. 
Insane, Hospitals for, 234. 
Inspector of mines, 207, 226. 
Insurance Commissioner, 208, 226. 
lowas, 69, 92. 
Irving, Washington, 16. 

Jackson, Andrew, 27, 37. 
Jefferson, Thomas, 24. 
Jenkins, Governor, 135. 
Judicial department, 213. 
Jury, 196. 

Kaws, 66, 111. 
Keechis, 70, 71. 
Kickapoos, 69, 104. 
Kiowas, 70. 

Labor Commissioner, 207, 226. 
Land offices, 99, 108, 231. 
La Salle, 10. 

Latrobe, Charles Joseph, 16. 
Lawmaking, 198, 199, 200. 
Leavenworth, Gen. Henry, 16. 



Lee, Gen. Robert E., 52. 
Legislative department, 198. 
Lieutenant Governor, 205, 228. 
Long, Major Stephen, 15. 
Lot Sale, 110. 

Manufactures, 158. 
Marcos de Nizza, 3, 5. 
Marcy, Captain R. B., 17. 
Marquette, 9. 

Marshall, Chief Justice, 27. 
Maxey, General, 50. 
McClellan, Captain Geo. B., 18. 
McCulloch, General, 46. 
McGuire, Bird S., 136, 227. 
Mcintosh, Chilly, 33, 43. 

Col. D. N., 43. 

WUliam, 32, 43. 
Mendoza, 3. 
Miamis, 65. 
Miles, Gen. N. A., 76. 
Minerals, 157. 
Missouris, 72, 111. 
Modocs, 66. 
Morgan, Dick T., 228. 
Moscosco, 7. 

Murray, William H., 140, 142, 
228. 

Napoleon, Camp, 53. 

New counties, 153, 189. 

Nez Perces, 67. 

No Man's Land, 22, 88. 

Normal schools, 133, 135. 152. 

Nuttall, Thomas, 15. 

Oklahoma, name, 63. 
Okmulgee Constitution, 64. 
Openings, 56, 112, 226. 
Organic Act, 90, 116. 130. 
Osages, 66, 133. 
Osceola, 38. 
Otoes, 72, 111. 
Ottawas, 65. 
Owen. Robert L., 149. 228. 



240 



INDEX 



Panhandle, 22. 
Pardons, 212. 
Parker, Quanah, 74. 
Parkhill Seminary, 164. 
Pawnees, 68. 
Payne, David L., 84. 
Peace Compact, 53. 

Conditions, 57. 

Councils, 53, 56, 70. 
Pegg, Captain Thomas, 49. 
Penitentiary, 212, 234. 
Peorias, 65. 
Pheasant Bluff, 51. 
Phillips, Col. Wm. A., 47, 49. 
Phoenix, Cherokee, 166. 
Pike, Gen. Albert, 43, 46. 
Pike, Lieut. Zebulon M., 13. 
Pitchlynn, Chief Peter P., 56. 
Plains Indians, 73. 
Poncas, 67, 111. 
Population, 146, 162, 225, 234. 
Porter, Pleasant, 140. 
Pottawatomies, 70. 
Price, Gen. Sterling, 46. 
Primaries, 152, 219. 
Prohibition, 142. 
Public schools, 167, 174. 

Quapaws, 65. 
Quivira, 6, 19. 

Race for land, 86, 93, 96, 102, 

105, 113. 
Railroads, 59, 160. 
Red River, source of, 17. 
Referendum, 152, 202. 
Reformatory, 212, 234. 
Register of Deeds, 190. 
Registration, 100, 108, 219. 
Removal of Indians, 39. 
Renfrow, Gov. Wm. C, 134. 
Ridge, Major, 27, 30, 42. 
Rights, 171. 

Ro.ss, Chief John, 25, 27, 30, 46, 47. 
Ross, William P., 64. 



Sac and Fox, 69. 
Saint Denis, 11. 
Schools, Church, 168, 235. 

City, 187. 

District, 174. 

Government, 165. 

Mission, 164. 

Separate, 177. 

State, 167, 233. 

Town, 183. 

Tribal, 165. 
School lands, 168. 
Scott, Gen. Winfield, 29. 
Sears, T. C, 83. 
Seay, Gov. A. J., 133. 
Secretary of State, 206, 228. 
Seminoles, 37, 69. 
Senate, 199. 
Senecas, 65. 
Sequoyah, 167. 

Sequoyah Convention, 136, 139. 
Seven Cities of Cibola, 3. 
Shawnees, 65, 66, 69. 
Sheridan, Gen. P. H., 75. 
Sibley, George C, 14. 
Siegel, General, 46. 
Slavery, 49, 58. 
Smith, Gen. Kirby. 52. 
Solomon River Raid, 75. 
Spanish American War, 134. 
Sparks, Captain, 17. 
Springer Bill, 85. 
Stand Watie, 43, 47, 51. 
State boards, 210-212, 229. 
Statehood bills, 138. 
Steamboat, J . R. WUIUdh.s, 51. 
Steele, Gen. William, 50. 
Steele, Gov. Geo. W., 133. 
Suffrage, 217. 
Superintendent, State, 207, 22^ 

Taxes, 220. 

Territorial Convention, 129. 

Government, 62. 
Territories, Classes, 116. 



INDEX 



241 



Textbook Commission, 210. 
Title to Oklahoma, 20. 
Tonkawas, 47, 67. 
Towns, 181. 
Townships, 178. 
Trails, 81. 

Treasurer, State, 206, 228. 
Treaties, of 1866, 57. 

Confederacy, 43. 

Creeks, 32. 

Dancing Rabbit Creek, 35. 

Medicine Lodge, 70. 

New Echota, 27. 

Pontotoc, 35. 

Seminoles, 37. 
Tribal government, 119-125. 

Unassigned lands, 83. 



Vaca, Cabeza de, 2, 8. 
Van Dorn, General, 46. 
Veto, 200, 204. 
Voters, 217. 

Wacos. 70. 

Weir, Col. William, 46. 
Wichita Agency, 43, 71. 
Wichitas, 20, 70. 
Wilkinson, Lieut. James, 14. 
Williams, Col. J. M., 51. 
Wright, Allen, 63. 
Wyandottes, 65. 

Yo-ho-la. 45. 

Zuiii pueblos, 4, 5. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



BY 



PAUL S. REINSCH, Ph.D. 

ENVOY EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTER PLENIPOTEN= 

TIARY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE 

CHINESE REPUBLIC 



oif TToXX' aXXa 770A.U 



BENJ. H. SANBORN & CO. 
CHICAGO BOSTON NEW YORK 

1914 



CJOFTRIOHT, 1909, 

By PAUL S. REINSCH. 



INTRODUCTION 

Young persons are not alone in preferring to 
see how things are done in political life rather 
than to study the bare legal framework of the 
state. The author believes that emphasis on 
the structure of our government has been car- 
ried too far, especially in books for children and 
young students. The subject has been given 
too much of a legal character. Now to see men 
at work, to see them struggling for influence 
and power and performing the duties of office 
and of citizenship, is undoubtedly far more inter- 
esting than to consider the underlying legal 
principles of constitutional organization. The 
writer of this little book, the result of a period 
of leisure from more exacting duties, has there- 
fore attempted to make it a portrayal of action 
in political life. Its prime purpose is to train 
boys and girls to notice and to understand what 
is going on about them in their town, state, and 
nation. However, for intelligent action in mat- 



iv INTRODUCTION 

ters of politics, we need also some understanding 
of the outward form of government. After the 
more essential methods of political action have 
been described, some attention will therefore be 
given to the structure of the state in all its 
parts. To the ordinary citizen it is far more 
important to understand the meaning of such 
matters as elections, the action of the city coun- 
cil, and the police, than to dwell upon the re- 
finements of constitutional law. Only the most 
essential features of state organization have 
therefore been pointed out. 

Politics and government are human action — 
life and action of the most interesting kind. 
They are action, moreover, upon which our per- 
sonal welfare and happiness are directly depend- 
ent. We cannot be members of a state in 
which corruption and injustice govern without 
feeling the bad results in our own life. The 
life of a state is our life written large. Without 
a well-arranged and orderly state life, complete 
private happiness is not possible. Moreover, 
there is no satisfaction in life so great as devo- 
tion to the welfare of the state. All private 
satisfaction seems small when compared with 
that of a man who has gained the confidence 



INTRODUCTION V 

of his fellow-citizens through honest action and 
personal sacrifice. 

There is such a multitude of facts in connec- 
tion with political life that it is necessary to 
select those which are most important for young 
Americans to know. A small book like this 
cannot pretend to be complete. If we should 
try to fill it with a description of every political 
institution, it would become a dreary catalogue 
of things that mean nothing to our minds. But 
while we cannot cover the ground completely, 
we can endeavor to point out those things which 
are most vital and important, in order that they 
may acquire a meaning in the minds of yoimg 
persons which will help them much in after life. 
This is not a handbook on American government, 
but only the first introduction into that fascinat- 
ing field. 

Institutions differ so much in different parts 
of our country that some of them can be de- 
scribed only in general terms. It is for the 
young students themselves to see what particular 
form an institution takes in their own commu- 
nity and neighborhood. To make them find 
out these things by inquiry and observation is 
the best training that their minds can receive. 



Vi INTRODUCTION 

People should be able to see for themselves and 
interpret the meaning of what is going on around 
them. For this reason there have been added 
to each chapter a few questions to be answered 
by the pupil himself after inquiry and observa- 
tion. These are, of course, only in the nature 
of suggestions to the teacher. The information 
is not to be taken from books, but is to be ob- 
tained through personal inquiry. The intelligent 
use of newspaper information, too, may be taught 
in this connection. Often these questions will 
be designed also to train the judgment in that 
they will call for a decision between two alterna- 
tives. The study of political action offers a rare 
opportunity for training the power of observa- 
tion as well as the judgment. As in the natural 
sciences, a pupil must learn to observe accurately 
and to judge of what he sees. It is apparent 
that a republic is especially in need of citizens 
who are able to do their own thinking, and to 
see the real through the veil of outward appear- 
ances. 

The thanks of the author are due to the 
Publishers, and especially to Mr. Gordon A. 
Southworth, who rendered valuable assistance 
in preparing the manuscript, and who, during 



INTRODUCTION vii 

the author's absence from the country, carefully 
read the proof ; also to the United States Treas- 
ury Department, the United States Department 
of Agriculture, the Departments of War and 
Navy, the Post Office Department, the Depart- 
ment of Commerce and Labor, the United States 
Academies at West Point and Annapolis, the 
Department of Education, New York City, 
the Massachusetts Highway Commission, and 
the Massachusetts Metropolitan Park Commis- 
sion, for illustrations. 

P. S. R. 

The University of Wisconsin, 
January, 1909. 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 



Part I. The Government and the Citizen 



ent . 
iient 



Chap. I. The True Nature of Govern n 

II. The Citizen's Part in Govern 

III. Nominations . 

IV. Elections 
V. Some Duties of Citizens 

Part II. What Governments Do 

Chap. VI. Maintaining Order 

VII. Protection of the Citizens 

VIII. Educational Institutions 

IX. Public Charities . 

X. The Highways 

XI. Public Works in Cities . 

XII. The Development of Public Wealth 

XIII. Forests .... 

XIV. Public Lands . 
XV. Money .... 

XVI. The Mails 

XVII. Foreign Affairs 

XVIII. The Army and Navy . 

XIX. Taxation ^ 

XX. Legislation 



PAGE 

iii 



3 

8 
13 
IG 



31 

33 

48 

55 

65 

71 

80 

81 

90 

98 

101 

105 

111 

118 

120 

13G 



CONTENTS 



Part III. The Organization of the Government 

Chap. XXI. The Town and Village 

XXII. The City . 

XXIII. The County 

XXIV. The State Government 
XXV. The National Government 

XXVI. The President . 

XXVII. The Cabinet 

XXVIII. The Congress . 

XXIX. The Federal Courts . 

XXX. International Unions 

Fart IV. Some American Ideals 

Chap. XXXI. Hospitality to All People 

XXXII. Liberty 

XXXIII. Equality of Opportunity 

XXXIV. Patriotism . 
XXXV. The Declaration of Independence 

Part V. Analysis of the Federal Constitution 
Chap. XXXVI. Note on Conventions, Boys' Re 



PUBLICS, etc. 



Index 



PAGE 

145 

147 
152 
163 
166 
176 
183 
192 
198 
203 
207 

211 

213 
220 
225 

228 
237 

242 



251 
255 



PART I 

GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN 



4 




\ 






^3 



CHAPTER I 

THE TRUE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT 

Government in Early Times. — Wherever men 
live together in communities, government exists. 
It has, however, very different forms. Among the 
savages in Africa and among the tribes of Central 
Asia, the communities are very small. They 
have at their head a chieftain. As civilization 
advances, a number of such communities or tribes 
are brought together under the power of a single 
ruler. In the earlier stages of community life 
there is apt to be much warfare. War demands 
obedience on the part of the army to its com- 
mander. So it comes about that the head of 
the state at times when war is common becomes 
very powerful. As the power passes from father 
to son, certain families establish their authority 
for long periods. Such royal families, whose 
history goes back to these early warlike times, 
still exist in many countries, like England, Ger- 
many, and Russia. In some of these countries, 

3 



4 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

however, the progress of peaceful civiHzation 
has resulted in greatly limiting the power of the 
sovereign ; while in a number of countries such as 
the United States, France, and Switzerland, no 
sovereign family exists at all, the government 
being carried on by men elected by the citizens in 
general. 

In earlier times government was looked upon 
as something imposed from above. The royal 
power seemed so strong that there was no pos- 
sibility of resisting it. Kings often claimed that 
they exercised divine power. In such periods 
the people were not supposed to do anything but 
obey commands given from above. A state with 
such a government has an unstable foundation. 
As it would be unsafe to build a house upon a 
foundation narrower than the house itself, so a 
state which rests only on a small number of people 
is not secure. It is far better that the power of 
all the people should be recognized in order that 
the state may have their intelligent support. 

Government in Modern Times. — In our own 
times a government that should rely on force alone 
would have no security among an intelligent 
people. Our idea of government is different. 
The government is merely the people acting 



THE TRUE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT 5 

directly or through its agents and representatives, 
for their own benefit. We cannot live happily 
unless we are willing to obey reasonable laws 
which protect the hfe and property of ourselves 
as well as of others. We could not live happily 
in a wilderness or in solitude. We need the 
company and assistance of other people. We 
need schools, churches, universities, business 
associations, societies, and clubs of various kinds. 
In order that we may be able to enjoy all these 
advantages of social life, we must also observe 
the rules laid down for social action. In order 
that these rules may be just and reasonable and 
impartially enforced, we elect certain of our 
fellow-citizens to make laws or to appoint officials 
for their execution. When we obey these laws 
and officers, we are simply obeying what we 
ourselves consider just and right. 

The Real Government. — The government is 
composed of the men whom the people elect to 
office, together with officers who are appointed 
by them under the law. These men do the work 
in which all citizens are interested. They ought, 
therefore, to consider the welfare and interest 
of all members of the state. The government 
is not something apart from our life, something 



6 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

outside of us, set over us; it is simply ourselves, 
the people, acting for our common benefit. The 
men whom we intrust with power do not have any 
special privilege, nor should they look upon their 
office as a source of advantage to themselves. We 
have given them influence and authority in order 
that they may do the work in which we are all 
interested. An official, no matter how high, is 
under the law just as any other citizen. Thus, 
if a governor or a president should violate the 
speed laws on a public road, he would be subject 
to arrest and fine like any other citizen. His 
power is only such as the law has given him, and 
is no greater than his responsibilities. 

We need faithful, unselfish public servants who 
really think of and work for what is best for the 
community, that is, for all of us. Such men we 
shall honor and reward for their honesty and effi- 
ciency. In men who use their office simply to 
benefit themselves or their friends, we shall 
have no confidence. If they consider what is 
good for any small group of men or for any cor- 
poration rather than for the people as a whole, 
they are not faithful servants of the public. They 
are servants of the few — of men who possibly re- 
ward them with private gain^ while we, the public, 



THE TRUE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT 7 

are ignored as of no importance. We shall not 
trust men in office when we discover that their 
character is not that of honest public servants. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Are you a citizen ? Of what ? Tell the differ- 
ence between a citizen and a voter. 

2. What is a monarchy ? An oligarchy ? A plu- 
tocracy ? A democracy ? 

3. How far back can you trace the family of King 
Edward VII ? 

4. What is a corporation ? A repubUc ? An ordi- 
nance ? 

5. Why should we obey city ordinances ? 

6. What is patriotism ? How can boys and girls 
show their patriotism ? 

7. Name some pubUc officials in your city or town. 
Were they elected or appointed, and by whom ? 

8. What is a community or tribe ? How governed ? 

9. What classes of citizens should be elected to 
pul)lic office ? Why ? 

10. How does the government of the United States 
differ from that of England ? 



CHAPTER II 

THE CITIZEN^S PART IN GOVERNMENT 

A Pure Democracy. — While the work of 
government is carried on by elected and ap- 
pointed officials who represent the people, the 
citizens themselves have important duties to 
fulfil in connection with the public business. 
There are some small communities in which the 
voters in assembly directly perform almost the 
entire work of governing. In the mountain re- 
gions of Switzerland there are cantons or com- 
munities in which all the citizens meet once or 
several times a year to discuss all matters of 
common interest. On these occasions they vote 
for laws and regulations and instruct the per- 
manent officials as to how they are to conduct 
public affairs. In our country we have a similar 
institution in the tonm meeting found in New 
England, in New York, and in several Western 

commonwealths, in which the citizens of a neigh- 

8 



THE CITIZEN'S PART IN GOVERNMENT 9 

borhood come together to discuss matters relating 
to the common welfare. They vote on the raising 
of money, on the building and repair of roads, 
on school business, and similar matters. They 
elect some of their number, often called selectmen, 
to carry their votes into effect and transact busi- 
ness connected therewith. We call this form of 
public action direct democracy. Democracy is a 
Greek word meaning the rule of the people. In 
the town the people rule directly. They make 
their own by-laws and regulations without elect- 
ing representatives for that purpose. 

A Representative Government. — But it is plain 
that in a large city, in a state, or in a nation, it 
would be impossible to have all the citizens meet 
together for discussion and voting. A mass meet- 
ing of several thousand or a hundred thousand 
people is wholly impracticable. It is therefore 
necessary that smaller groups within the city or 
state — say wards or districts in the city or towns 
and counties in the state — should select rep- 
resentatives to meet together as a council or 
legislature to make laws and regulations for the 
government of the community. In a nation like 
our own the most important duty of the citizens, 
therefore, is that of voting. When the citizen 



10 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



casts his ballot, he decides who is to represent 
him in the exercise of power. 




The Senate Chamber, Washington, D.C. 



The people not only select the men who are to 
hold office, but they also control the policies of 
public action which are to be followed, because 
candidates for office always declare what policy 
they stand for. The citizens or electors therefore 
choose not only between men but between policies. 

Intelligent Voting. — Many people do not realize 
the importance of the act they perform when they 



THE CITIZEN'S PART IN GOVERNMENT 11 

cast their ballots. There are people even who do 
not think for themselves when they are voting, 
but follow the advice of others. Every citizen 
should know what candidates he wants to vote 
for as the best representatives of his idea of the 
public good. He should inquire about them, and 
find out whether in offices which they may have 
formerly held they have been honest and efficient. 
He should read their arguments and see what 
policies they support. If he finds that they are 
not to be trusted, or that they support wrong 
pohcies, he should not vote for them. 

We see that there .are many things to inquire 
about before voting. It is, therefore, better 
that there should not be too many elective offices. 
Let the most important officers be elected by the 
people, but let all other officials be appointed. 
If we have to vote for a large number of men, 
we cannot often vote intelligently. We cannot 
learn all we ought to know about the individual 
candidates before the election. If, however, we 
vote only for men to fill the most important 
positions, we may ordinarily do so wisely, and may 
thus control the policy of the entire government, 
the subordinate officials being dependent in 
their action. 



12 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Admission to Citizenship. — All persons born 
in the United States are American citizens, no 
matter what the nationahty of their parents may 
be. If people from other countries come to hve 
in the United States, and desire to become citizens 
here, the law requires them to declare this purpose 
before the court. Then, after residing in the United 
States five years, they may be admitted to citizen- 
ship by a court, if they promise to support the 
Constitution and live permanently in the United 
States. Only white persons and people of African 
descent may become citizens of our country by 
naturalization. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the difference between a pure democracy 
and a representative democracy? 

2. What are by-laws? A constitution? Selectmen? 

3. Which form of government is better in a place 
of fifteen thousand inhabitants? Why? 

4. Who is at the head of the government in your 
town or city? Are his assistants appointed or elected? 

5. What is a ward? How many in your city? 

6. What is a county? How many in your state? 

7. What is a citizen's most important duty? 

8. What is a town meeting? Where found? What 
matters are voted upon? 



CHAPTER III 

NOMINATIONS 

Selecting Candidates for Office. — In the elec- 
tion one may, of course, vote for any citizen whom 
he desires to place in office. It is customary, 
however, for voters to name or nominate certain 
candidates before the election, because otherwise 
the votes would be scattered. One would not care 
to throw away one's vote by casting it for a person 
whom no one else puts on his ticket. Citizens, 
therefore, combine to select a man for whom 
they will vote. In this way parties are formed. 
Political parties are large groups of citizens who 
stand for certain policies and who act together in 
nominating officials to carry out those policies. 

Conventions. — The original method of nomi- 
nating still in use in many states was for each 
political party to hold a convention. The dele- 
gates to this meeting are nominated in so-called 
primaries; that is, in meetings of the citizens of 

13 



14 ' CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

small election districts or precincts. There are 
county conventions, district conventions, state 
conventions, and national conventions. The dele- 
gates to the state conventions may be elected by 
the county conventions, and the delegates to the 
national convention by the state conventions. 

When citizens do not pay sufficient attention to 
the primary nominations, the nominating power 
often comes into the hands of corrupt politicians. 
One cannot expect to enjoy a right which he does 
not exercise. Even rights of property must be 
exercised in order to preserve them. Should one 
fail to look after land which he owns, some one 
else might settle on it, and finally the owner's right 
to it would be lost. So if citizens do not exercise 
their right of nominating candidates for office, 
their power will be taken by political organizers 
who are often corrupt and seek nothing but their 
own gain. 

Direct Primaries. — In a large number of the 
states the system has been changed so that party 
conventions no longer have this power of nomina- 
tion. The citizens themselves hold a direct pri- 
mary election at which they vote for men whom 
they wish to be candidates of a party for office. 
The man receiving the largest number of votes in 



NOMINATIONS 15 

each party for any office will be the candidate of 
that party in the election which is held somewhat 
later. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Do you have direct primary elections in your 
state ? 

2. At what time and in what manner are the candi- 
dates for the office of sheriff nominated ? 

3. Is it better that the candidates should be nomi- 
nated in a convention or l)y direct primaries ? 

4. At the next primary election let your father or 
uncle show you a ballot. See how many candidates 
are named on this ballot. 

5. What is the meaning of primary ? Politics ? 
Nominate ? Try to find the origin of the word " can- 
didate." 

6. Which is more important, the nomination or the 
election of an official ? 

7. What is a political party ? Name four. 

8. What is a convention ? What does the word 
'' convention " mean ? 

9. Who are entitled to vote at a primary ? Why ? 
10. For what offices were candidates voted for at the 

last primary in your home ? 



CHAPTER IV 

ELECTIONS 

Voting by Ballot. — With us elections are car- 
ried on entirely by ballot; that is, by a vote 
written or printed upon a slip or sheet of paper. 
The ballot may be simply a party ballot; that 
is, the names of the candidates of one party only 
may appear on it. This is the older method, 
which is still used in a few states. Under this 
method, if one desires to vote for a man whose 
name is not on the party ticket, he will scratch 
out the name of the regular nominee and write 
the name of the man whom he desires to be 
elected. This is called " scratching, '^ or the 
voting of a " split ticket." 

The Australian Ballot. — In most states the 
so-called Australian ballot has been introduced. 
This is a ballot on which the candidates of all 
parties are named, either alphabetically, or ar- 
ranged in separate columns according to parties. 
In the latter case, any one voting for all the can- 
didates of one party will make a cross at the head 

16 



ELECTIONS 



17 




18 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

of that party column. But if he desires to spHt 
his ticket, he puts a cross next to the name of each 
candidate for whom he wishes to vote. 

Voting Machines. — The American people are 
so practical in labor-saving devices that voting 
machines have been invented, which are already 
in use in many states. These machines save the 
trouble of marking a ballot, and they also count 
and register the number of votes cast for every 
candidate. The machine shows these numbers 
at any time, so that the tedious work of counting 
ballots is saved. The results are also absolutely 
accurate. It is important, before voting, to know 
exactly how to use the machine. If one does not 
use it right, his vote will be lost, as it will also be 
if he does not mark his ballot correctly. There 
will always be some one present at the election 
to explain the proper use of the ballot or the 
voting machine. 

Split Tickets. — It is very important that one 
should learn how to vote a split ticket. If one 
can only vote a straight ticket, that is, a ticket for 
all the candidates of a certain party, his choice 
is limited. There ma}^ be on the party ticket a 
man who should not be elected, because he has 
failed to fulfil his promises and has not been an 



ELECIIONS 19 

honest servant of the pubhc. ITe can only be 
defeated by votes for the candidate of some 
other party for that position. His name must, 
therefore, be stricken out, if the voter has placed 
a cross in the " party circle " at the top. 

The Process of Voting. — Elections are held in 
election booths or halls. Each party is entitled 
to have election judges present to take charge of 
the election and report the result to the Secretary 
of State in the capital of the commonwealth or to 
other designated officers. On entering the election 
booth and having his right to vote recognized, the 
voter will receive a blank ballot. He then steps 
into a stall, where he marks his ballot. When he 
has carefully looked it over to see that he has 
made no mistake, he hands it to one of the election 
judges, who deposits it in the ballot-box. If there 
is a voting machine, the voter will pull certain 
levers which will register his vote. One can take 
all the time he needs in marking the ballot, but 
if one votes by machine, he must do it quickly, as 
there is usually only one machine, and many people 
desiring to vote. The judges will, therefore, allov/ 
only a minute or so to register a vote. 

In either case the vote is secret, and nobody 
knows who has been favored. Formerly votes 



20 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

were given by word of mouth, so that the com- 
munity knew how eveiy one had voted. The 
secret ballot was introduced for the purpose of 
breaking down the influence of rich and powerful 
men who might wish to coerce those dependent 
upon them to vote in a certain way. At the 
present time one is not obliged to make his vote 
public, though most persons are independent 
enough to tell frankly whom they have supported. 
Some people think that it is a disgrace to have 
voted for a candidate who has been defeated; 
but if the voter acts intelligently and honestly, 
defeat does not matter. The majority is some- 
times wrong. It is better to feel that one is right 
with a few than wrong with the majority. 

Political Campaigns. — Preceding the election, 
the candidates urge upon the voters their claims 
to office. A campaign really is a series of military 
movements and battles in a war. As we have 
substituted the ballot for force, we have freed 
ourselves from the need of battles to determine 
who the rulers shall be; but we call a political 
contest a campaign because citizens can fight 
with speeches and ballots as well as with arms. 
Often people form uniformed marching clubs that 
parade through the streets with bands of music 



ELECTIONS 21 

in torch-light processions. This is all very in- 
teresting to the boys and girls, but a careful voter 
will be very little influenced by such exhibitions. 
He will make up his mind in his choice between 
different candidates on the basis of the principles 
they stand for and the service they have rendered. 
In this he is assisted by the arguments made during 
the campaign. These we sometimes call stump 
speeches, because when our country was new and 
but recently settled, many tree stumps were still 
left standing in village streets. It was very con- 
venient for a man who wanted to address the 
villagers to mount one of these stumps and to 
make his speech from this point of vantage. 
If he became very profuse in cheap and insincere 
patriotism, it was said, " He made the eagle 
scream. '' Very often the campaign speeches 
took the form of deriding and blackening the 
character of the other party, or of telling jokes 
meant to ridicule the opposition. 

At present, campaigns have become more digni- 
fied. We like to hear a witty speaker who knows 
how to take advantage of the weaknesses of the 
other side, but we are not satisfied with ancient 
jokes and a superficial oratory. The most suc- 
cessful political orators to-day know that the great 



22 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

interests of the public, the important work that 
the government is doing, are more fascinating 
subjects than anything else on which a campaign 
speech can be made. They, therefore, speak to 
their audiences upon matters that are really worth 
while. They do not seek merely to amuse their 
hearers, but they appeal to their judgment. 

Voting on Changes in the Constitution. — While 
the citizen most frequently votes for public offi- 
cials, he is also occasionally called on to express 
his choice regarding important matters of law 
or public expediency. This takes place when 
constitutional amendynents are submitted to the 
people. A constitution is the body of law which 
lies at the basis of government. It fixes the gen- 
eral powers of officers and guarantees the rights 
of citizens. A change in the constitution is the 
most important act of the citizens of a free state. 
The fundamental law upon which everything else 
depends is affected by such action. The proposed 
amendments will be printed at the bottom of the 
ballots or upon separate sheets. Upon these 
amendments the citizens vote either ^' yes " or 
^' no.'' It is strange that usually the vote on 
amendments is very small as compared with the 
vote for officials. This shows that many people 



ELECTIONS 23 

do not appreciate the importance of a change in 
the constitution. They do not take the time to 
inform themselves as to what the amendment 
means. For example, it may provide that the state 
shall be authorized to borrow money for the 
construction of public roads. The voter should 
consider whether it is advisable for the state to 
incur a debt for this purpose. He should con- 
sider how valuable good roads are to a common- 
wealth — how much they add in usefulness and 
enjoyment to the life of the citizens. Only after 
he has fully considered these matters and informed 
himself upon them should he cast his vote. 

Oversight of Officials. — We ought to know the 
business of the state or government because it is 
our own business and affects our own happiness. 
We should give heed to what the public servants 
are doing and how they are fulfilling their duties. 
We cannot expect that officials will be faithful to 
our interests if we do not reward them for honest 
action with our confidence. If we do not attend 
to our own affairs, nobody else will do it for us. 
We have a common proverb, " Mind your own 
business." This has often been falsely inter- 
preted to mean that a man should confine himself 
exclusively to his own individual interests. It is, 



24 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

of course, very wise that we should not waste any 
attention on what concerns other people only. 
But when we go before the legislature and argue 
for the protection of forests or for the building 
of good roads, or when we tell the city council that 
no franchises should be given without proper 
return to the people and the city, we are attending 
to our own business; because if these things are 
not settled in the right manner we may personally 
suffer in consequence. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a ''hand vote"? A ''yea and nay 
vote " ? A " roll-call vote " ? A " viva voce vote " ? 

2. What is a ballot ? Try to find the origin of the 
word. 

3. When may each of these ways of voting be used ? 

4. What is it to "scratch a ballot" ? 

5. Why are states sometimes called common- 
wealths ? 

6. What is the value of a political torch-light 
procession ? 

7. What are some of the advantages of a secret 
ballot ? 

8. What are some of the advantages of a voting 
machine ? 

9. Find the meaning of guarantee; legislature; 
franchise; fundamental; register. 



CHAPTER V 

SOME DUTIES OF CITIZENS 

Office-holding. ^ The duty of the citizen is 
not fully done when he has voted for officials and 
on constitutional amendments. He may be called 
by his fallow-citizens to hold public office himself. 
In this case it is his duty, even at some personal 
sacrifice, to undertake this work for the state 
and the community. Some offices do not require 
much attention. They are simply honorary and 
without salary. The office of presidential elector 
is such. In most cases, however, public office 
involves labor and time. It is, therefore, just 
that the public should pay its officers well, so that 
their loss may not be too great. The American 
people is, indeed, rich enough to afford the best 
public service, and it should be paid for at a rea- 
sonable rate. We ought not to expect men to 
leave their business and devote their time and 
thought and energy to the public without suitable 
remuneration. But in turn the office-holder 
should look upon himself as a representative of 

25 



26 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the public. The value of his position is not to be 
estimated by the privileges or income which it 
brings to him, but by the advantages which he 
can secure for the public by means of it. The 
highest honor in the world is public confidence, 
not a large income. The President of the United 
States is paid only $75,000 a year. Its Chief 
Justice receives $15,000, cabinet officers, $12,000, 
and a senator, $7500. Yet there are many 
millionaires who would willingly surrender their 
entire income in order to enjoy the public con- 
fidence which goes with these high offices. 

Jury Service. — ^ Another duty of citizens is to 
serve on juries in the trial of civil and criminal 
cases. For this service the citizen is given a small 
remuneration, but it is a duty which is often 
irksome and disagreeable. To sit through a long, 
tedious trial, perhaps for weeks, listening to testi- 
mony and the arguments of attorneys, and then 
to be shut up with other jurymen for hours, or even 
days, until the verdict has been agreed upon, is 
often a very undesirable experience. There is no 
duty of the citizen, however, in the performance of 
which higher demands are made upon his charac- 
ter. All our laws rest upon the people. They 
must ultimately enforce them through juries in 



SOME DUTIES OF CITIZENS 



27 



all parts of our country. AMien a man has com- 
mitted a crime, he ought to be punished. He 
should neither be persecuted in malice nor freed 




The United States Supreme Court Room 

through pity. The majesty of the law must be up- 
held. Often when jurors see how a man has been 
led into temptation by others, how he has failed 
through weakness of character, and how his wife 
and innocent children will suffer through his impris- 
onment, they are moved with compassion, and it 
becomes a hard task to condemn him. Yet it 
must be done, because punishment is meted out to 



28 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



offenders in order that the people may be pro- 
tected. Upon the character and intelhgence of 
jurymen depend the enforcement of law and the 
security of the people. 

Army Service. — Every citizen of the state is 
under obligation to defend his country in case 



'^mmi 



Dress Parade, West- Point 

of need. Should our country be attacked from 
without, the citizen must be ready to come to its 
aid. At such a time he is merely standing up for 
the defence of his home, his family, and all that is 
dear to him. In times of war the government 
is given the right to compel the citizen to render 
military service. He may be drafted into the 
army, and must serve unless his physical condition 
is such as to make it impossible. While, happily, 



SOME DUTIES OF CITIZENS 29 

our countiy is so powerful and in such friendly 
relations with other countries that war need not 
be feared, yet it is our duty to be ready at any 
time to enter the army and fight for the security 
of our country. Nobody will care to attack those 
who are strong and ready to defend themselves. 
We should train our bodies so that we can endure 
fatigue and hardship, otherwise the first experi- 
ence in a military camp would make us helpless. 
Our nation will be strong if its citizens are healthy, 
vigorous, and able to defend themselves. 

Payment of Taxes. — It is the duty of the citizen 
to be always ready and willing to contribute from 
his own property to the support of the government. 
When we consider all the benefits which come to 
us through the government, we should be willing 
to pay our share of its expenses. Unfortunately;. 
some people, in one way or another, avoid the pay- 
ment of their just part of the burden of taxation. 
In defrauding the state the citizen defrauds himself, 
because if he does not want to carry the burdens, 
he cannot expect to share the privileges of good 
government. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the disadvantages of an official salary 
that is too small ? Of one that is too large ? 



30 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

2. What are the salaries of some of your town or 
state officers? 

3. How are jurors selected? 

4. What persons are excused from jury service? 

5. Is it proper for a candidate for office to advo- 
cate his own election ? 

6. Are ''office-seekers" good citizens? 

7. What qualities make a man a good juryman? 
A good soldier? A good office-holder? A good 
citizen ? 

8. Why is smuggling wrong? 

9. Is it worse to cheat your neighbor or to cheat 
the government ? 

10. Who should be excused from military service ? 

11. Why are some persons excused from jury duty ? 

12. Does the same jury consider all kinds of cases ? 
Why not ? 

13. What are jurors paid ? 

14. Who is the commander-in-chief of the United 
States army ? 

15. What is a tax ? How are taxes levied ? 

16. Name three kinds of taxes, 

17. What is an income tax? Is an income tax 
justifiable ? Why ? 



PAET II 
WHAT GOVERNMENTS DO 












0- «v ^ 



The House of Representatives, Washington, D.C. 



CHAPTER VI 

MAINTAINING ORDER 

Protection in Feudal Times. — We all desire to 
live in peace, to have our homes free from invasion, 
to have our property protected. Only thus may 
we work, travel, and play in comfort and peace. 
But who threatens the order under which we live ? 
In earlier ages society was very insecure. Men 
desired to get what they could, and had little 
respect for one another's rights. So it was neces- 
sary for each one to protect his own by the force 
of his right arm. Sheltered locations were much 
sought after. Men preferred to build their homes 
on high and inaccessible rocks. When we stand 
on the ramparts of one of the castles in Scotland 
or on the Rhine, we realize what protection against 
injury meant in those early days. The man who 
had succeeded in building himself a castle on an 
eminence, well protected with powerful walls and 
battlements, had not only secured safety for him- 
self and family, but he could also give protection to 
the people of the neighborhood. On his watch- 

33 



34 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

towers stood sentinels who could see a hostile 
force approaching from the distance. They could 
give warning to the peasants who were working 
in the fertile fields of the plains and valleys below. 
These would hurry with their wives and children 
up the road to the castle to seek protection within 
its walls. But; for the safety thus gained; they 
had given up their independence to the lord of the 
castle. They worked for hini; they brought what 
grain they could produce and what cattle they 
could raise for his use, keeping only enough them- 
selves to support a bare existence. Thus protec- 
tion against violence is an advantage for which 
men have in many cases given up practically all 
they had. 

Cities grew in this fashion. Athens, Corinth, 
Rome, — all the cities of antiquity; — were built 
on precipitous hills. The}^ had their acropoliS; a 
word which means a steep city, a fortress on an 
inaccessible hill-top. There stood the temples in 
which the divinities of the city found their home. 
On the lower slopes and on the surrounding plains 
citizens lived; worked; and traded. But they 
could always take refuge within the protecting 
walls of the fortress. As their wealth and im- 
portance grew, they built outer fortress walls 



MATNTATNINO ORDER 



35 



enclosing the entire settlement. In the Middle 
Ages all towns were walled in this fashion. The 
citizens thus protected could develop their rights 




A Feudal Castle 

of free government. The cities were the cradles 
of modern liberty. They could successfully de- 
fend themselves against long sieges; although 
when the force of the opponent was overpowering, 
they fell, their walls were broken down, and the 
city given over to massacre and destruction. 

Protection against Criminals. — In our age 
men in general have a greater respect for one 



36 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

another's rights. Castles or city walls are no 
longer needed for protection. Nations, indeed, 
are still building powerful fortresses, but within 
their own territory mutual protection does not 
require castle walls. Castles are relics of a former 
civilization, interesting chiefly for their pictur- 
esqueness and for the beautiful views that can be 
enjoyed from their ramparts. We are protected 
by the general respect for the rights of life and 
property which pervade the entire community. 
In some parts of the country we may live for 
months without seeing a policeman or soldier 
or any other person whose business it is to protect 
the public. We need not be afraid of attacks upon 
our persons, our homes, or our property. 

There are, however, still found in almost every 
community a vicious class who will violate the 
rights of others by theft, murder, or other crimes. 
These criminals have the instincts of an earlier 
time in the development of our civilization. 
They are a menace against which the state is 
under obligation to protect us. This work of 
protection is carried on by the police force and 
other officials who have police powers, such as 
sheriffs and constables in towns. The police 
should be constantly watchful to prevent crime 



MAINTAINING ORDER 37 

and to make its punishment possible by the arrest 
of criminals. A policeman who falls asleep on 
his beat or spends his time at places of amuse- 
ment, where he is not stationed by orders of his 
chief, should be dismissed from the service. 
Criminals avoid cities where an efficient police 
exists, but they infest towns where the police is 
inefficient or corrupt. 

As protection against crime and violence is the 
first duty of the government, so no greater evil 
can exist than an alliance between the police and 
criminals, through which criminals are allowed to 
escape in return for a share in their ill-gotten gains. 
It seems impossible that such things can exist; 
and yet when citizens are not watchful, greed and 
corruption will sometimes bring about such de- 
plorable conditions. 

The Arrest of the Criminal. — When a police- 
man has proof that a crime has been committed, 
or that a person has broken the laws, he should 
at once arrest the criminal. In a country district 
such arrest will usually be made by a sheriff or 
constable. To resist a peace officer is itself a 
crime, so that even if the arrest is illegal, no 
resistance should be made. If the officer is not 
able to handle the criminal or criminals alone, he 



38 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

may call in the assistance of any citizens present, 
and the latter are obliged to help in making the 
arrest or in pursuing the fleeing criminal. If a 
citizen should see a crime committed, it is his 
right and duty to arrest the criminal on the spot 
in order to prevent his escape. He may use any 
necessary force in doing this. Here, too, we see 
that the agents of the government are only doing 
the work which we as citizens might do for our- 
selves, but which for convenience has been in- 
trusted to some designated person. 

No citizen should, however, assume to judge and 
punish a criminal outside of the regular courts. 

Extradition. — Should a criminal escape into 
another state, a telegram will be sent to the gov- 
ernor of that state or to the police in a city asking 
to have him arrested and extradited. Extradition 
means the handing over of an arrested person by one 
state to the authorities of another. Should crimi- 
nals organize in clubs, or should large bodies of 
the population riot and destroy the property and 
endanger the lives of other citizens, the militia 
of the state may be called out to assist the peace 
officers; and when the legislature or governor 
of a state asks for it. United States troops will 
be sent to help in' restoring order. The militia 



MALNTAINING ORDER 



39 



and the trooi)s should, however, be used only 
when actual violence is threatened and when the 
ordinary peace officers are plainly unable to re- 
store order. 




An Illinois County Court House 

Trial of Criminals. — When a criminal has been 
arrested, his trial before a court of the state follows. 
He is first given a preliminaiy hearing before a 
magistrate, that is, a justice of the peace or a 
municipal judge. After it is found that good 
cause exists for his arrest, he will be bound over 
for trial. The magistrate, if the case is not one of 
murder, will ordinarily permit the accused to go 



40 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

free until the time of trials if he can furnish suffi- 
cient bail. Bail may be described as a payment 
of money, or as a promise of such payment, to 
secure the appearance of an accused person at 
trial. If he should meanwhile escape and not 
appear when the trial begins, the money thus paid 
or promised would be forfeited to the state. 

In criminal actions the state itself is the plaintiff. 
It is represented by the prosecuting attorney, who 
is usually called State's Attorney or District At- 
torney. He draws up the accusation against the 
accused in proper legal form. He must be ex- 
ceedingly careful in this, because if the crime 
charged is not properly described, the action may 
fail and the criminal may be dismissed by the 
court. When the day for trial comes, the ac- 
cused is arraigned before the court. He is asked 
whether he pleads guilty or not guilty to the charge 
preferred against him. Should he j^lead guilty, 
that is, should he admit his guilt openly, the judge 
will immediately pronounce judgment and fix the 
punishment under the law. If he pleads not 
guilty, that is, if he denies his guilt, the trial be- 
gins. 

The Defence of the Criminal. — The accused 
is entitled to counsel. If he cannot afford to 



MAINTAINING ORDER 41 

pay an attorney himself, the judge will appoint 

some one to defend him. Formerly, the accused 

was not permitted to bring any counsel into 

the court, and in general he was treated as if 

he were guilty and had to prove his innocence. 

But it was found that many innocent men were 

unjustly condemned and punished under this 

arrangement. In our country we have decided 

to give the accused every possible protection in 

order that he may clear himself if he is not guilty. 

He is allowed counsel. Pie need not testify 

against himself, though he may testify in his own 

favor. He is presumed not to be guilty until his 

guilt is proven, and it must be proven so strongly 

that no reasonable doubt remains. If he thinks 

the judge will be unfavorable to him, or that the 

entire neighborhood is strongly prejudiced, he may 

ask to have his case tried in some other county. 

This is called a change of venue. If men who have 

been drawn for the jury do not seem fair to him, 

he may object to a certain number of them, and 

when the verdict and judgment have been finally 

given, he may appeal to a higher court. Certainly 

the rights of an individual could not be protected 

more carefully than is done under our laws. It is 

unfortunate that improper advantage is taken of 



42 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

this liberality, and that scheming attorneys will 
sometimes shield the guilty by using many legal 
technicalities which our liberal system makes 
possible. 

The Jury. — To return to the trial. The first 
thing after the accused has pleaded not guilty 
is to select a jury of twelve men to decide the 
question of his innocence or guilt. The sheriff 
or jury commissioners have prepared a list of 
jurors called a "panel. These jurors are called up 
one by one by the clerk of the court. They are 
questioned as to whether they have any prejudice 
in the matter, and if neither the accused nor the 
state objects to a juror, he is sworn in by the clerk 
of the court, and takes his seat in the jury-box. 
When twelve men have thus been selected, the 
trial begins. Witnesses are examined, the at- 
torneys make their arguments, and the judge 
instructs or charges the jury as to what law ought 
to be applied in the case. After this the jurymen 
retire to a special room, where they hold their 
deliberations. They must agree before the ver- 
dict can be rendered. Sometimes they will sit 
through days and nights before they can come to a 
decision. If they are so hopelessly divided that 
they can never unite in their opinions, they will 



MAINTAINING ORDER 43 

report to the court that they cannot render a 
verdict, and a new trial must take place. As a 
trial is expensive, it is ahvays desirable that juries 
should give a verdict. When they have united 
on a verdict, they inform the judge, who calls the 
court together in the presence of the jury and 
prisoner. They then give the verdict of guilty or 
not guilty. We can imagine the strain that the 
prisoner is under when the case is submitted to the 
jury, and when his freedom or even his life depends 
upon the judgment of these twelve men. 

Evidence of Guilt. — The position of a juryman 
is one of great responsibility. He should be ab- 
solutely impartial, and not allow his feelings to 
injure or favor the accused. While he will feel 
sympathy for the offender, he must remember 
that law and order can only be upheld by the pun- 
ishment of criminals. If he has a reasonable doubt 
of the guilt of the accused, he should not pronounce 
him guilty, even if there is much popular clamor 
for his conviction. 

It is often difficult to arrive at a judgment on 
circumstantial evidence. Most crimes are com- 
mitted in secret, so that direct evidence of the 
crime cannot be given. Sometimes, however, 
circumstantial evidence is as convincing as direct 



44 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

evidence. If a man, after a crime had been com- 
mitted, should be seen burying a bloody weapon, 
and should thereafter be caught disposing of some 
articles taken from the body of a murdered man, 
his guilt would be presumed, if he could not give 
an entirely satisfactory explanation of these unusual 
acts. Though no one has seen him committing 
the crime, his behavior shows that he is guilty. 
In all such matters the common sense, honesty, 
and character of the jury must be relied upon. 
This illustrates how our government rests upon 
the people, and how the people must stand back 
of every law if it is enforced. 

The Punishment. — When the jury has returned 
its verdict, the judge pronounces judgment and 
determines the punishment of the crime under 
the law. It is then the privilege of the accused to 
make an appeal from the decision of the court to 
a higher tribunal, where his case will be definitely 
disposed of. 

In the punishment of criminals two objects are 
sought, the protection of society and the reforma- 
tion of the criminal. In cases where the character 
of the criminal is such that any improvement is 
hopeless, — if, for instance, he has been inhuman 
enough to take the life of another person, — some 



MAINTAINING ORDER 45 

commonwealths punish the criminal with death. 
In many states, however, imprisonment for life is 
the most severe punishment. We should, of course, 
consider that criminals are often unfortunate 
beings who have been driven to their desperate 
acts by unhappy conditions, but this should not 
lead- us to weakness in dealing with them. They 
must be placed where they cannot do any harm. 
Nevertheless, with all criminals, but especially 
with those guilty of less serious crimes, the effort 
should be made to inflict punishment in such a 
manner that their character may be improved and 
that they may be enabled to atone for their wrong- 
doing. Prisoners should be given an opportunity 
to do useful work, and every evidence of a desire 
to reform should be recognized and encouraged. 
When released from prison after their term of pun- 
ishment has expired, they should be helped to 
obtain some honest occupation, that they may not 
be driven back to a criminal life. 

Criminal laws deal with acts which are directed 
against the safety of all of us. W^hen a man is 
wounded, when his house is invaded by burglars, 
when thieves carry off the property of others, we 
all feel the danger to ourselves, and we demand 
that the government shall protect us against such 



46 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

acts and shall punish them as crimes against 
society itself. 

Unjust Arrest. — The law also protects innocent 
persons against unjust arrest or imprisonment. 
When the liberty of any person is restrained, his 
friends may go before any judge and get from him 
a writ of habeas corpus (Latin for " You may have 
the body"). This writ is a command of the court, 
directing the sheriff or other person under whose 
control the prisoner may be to bring him before 
the court and to show for what reason he is impris- 
oned. If no legal cause can be shown, the judge 
will then immediately set free the prisoner thus 
illegally restrained. In times of war the privilege 
of the writ of habeas corpus may be temporarily 
suspended. It is a great protection to the liberty 
of citizens against official tyranny or unjust 
persecution, that the legality of an arrest can 
thus be at any time tested. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Define feudal; acropolis; plaintiff; defendant; 
bail; extradite; venue; panel; habeas corpus. 

2. What are some of the qualities that make a good 
policeman? A good judge? 

3. What are some of the influences that make 
criminals ? 



MAIXTAINING ORDER 47 

4. How may crime be prevented? 

5. Wliat connection, if any, between truancy and 
crime? Intemperance and crime? 

6. What is the business of a juvenile court? 

7. What is a reform school ? An indeterminate 
sentence ? 

8. What is capital punishment? Is it justifiable? 

9. What is lynch law ? 

10. How do you discriminate between a crime and 
a misdemeanor ? 

11. What are the duties of a sheriff ? A constable ? 

12. Why were juvenile courts estabhshed ? Have 
they helped any boys or girls to become better men and 
women ? How ? 

13. Is a person guilty because arrested ? What is 
'^ reasonable doubt " ? 

14. What is " circumstantial evidence " ? 

15. Why should criminals be punished ? 



CHAPTER VII 

PROTECTION OF THE CITIZENS 

Protection of Property. — The government not 
only protects us against the acts of criminals, 
but it also protects our property and our health. 
One of the best-known departments of a city 
government is the fire department. Firemen are 
paid by the city for watching over the property 
of citizens and protecting it against destruction 
by fire. If a fire alarm is given, they must im- 
mediately hasten with their apparatus to the 
scene of the fire and extinguish it. They are 
under the command of the chief of the depart- 
ment, who controls their action as a general 
does an army. In smaller places fire companies 
are made up of citizens who volunteer to do this 
service for the people. It is inspiring to see these 
brave and fearless men at a great fire imperil their 
own lives to save lives and property of others. 

Protection of Health. — Another service which 
the government performs is the protection of 
health. On the national frontier and at the great 

48 



PROTECTION OF THE CITIZENS 49 

seaports quarantine stations are established. No 
persons are admitted to our country who are suf- 
fering from an epidemic or infectious disease. It 
is not sufficient to prevent the importation of dis- 
ease, but we must also fight it in our own commu- 
nities. This is done by health officers appointed 
by governments of cities and states. People 
suffering from contagious or infectious diseases 
should be isolated ; that is, they should be placed 
where they will not come in contact with other 
persons to whom the disease might be com- 
municated. People always dislike to go to a con- 
tagious hospital, and the family of the sick person 
sometimes oppose his removal to such a place. 
If this precaution is not taken, however, the 
disease will soon spread to other members of the 
family and among the neighbors. The only 
safety lies in the prompt isolation of the patient. 
x4t a good hospital one has more effective care 
than is possible even at home, so that recovery is 
generally more rapid. Health officers take many 
other measures designed to protect the life and 
health of the public. All their requirements 
should be respected, for their observance, though 
inconvenient at the time, will protect us as well as 
others from much trouble and suffering. 



50 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Personal Rights. — Though a man may not do 
direct violence to our person or destroy or injure 
our property, his actions may, nevertheless, be so 
injurious to us that we will not suffer them with- 
out complaint. Thus, he may refuse to fulfil 
his promise, or to pay for goods bought from us; 
he may allow his cattle to pasture on our land; 
or he may tell falsehoods about us that injure our 
reputation. When such acts as these are not 
accompanied by direct violence or disorderly 
conduct, the state will not itself punish them by 
fine or imprisonment. They are not crimes against 
the state, but wrongs (or torte) against individuals. 
In such cases, the offender must make good w^iat- 
ever damage his act has caused. The state will 
assist its citizens in obtaining justice under such 
circumstances. The courts are open to any who 
wish to bring action against those who have in- 
fringed their legal rights. 

' The duties that we owe our fellow-citizens and 
neighbors are not only recognized by our own sense 
of justice, but they are also defined and enforced 
by the laws of the state. These laws must be in 
accordance with the pubhc conscience as to what 
is right and wrong. They ought not to forbid 
actions which are harmless in themselves simply 



PROTECTION OF THE CITIZENS 51 

because they are not pleasing to certain persons, 
nor ought they to allow acts to be committed by 
which any citizen will suffer injury. 

Our Neighbors' Rights. — It is the law of the 
land that we must fulfil contracts which we have 
made. AMien we have promised to carry out a 
certain piece of work, or to rent lands or a house to 
another, or to sell him certain goods or to pay him 
a certain purchase price, we are bound in law to 
do as we have promised. We must also be 
considerate of the property rights, the health, 
and reputation of our fellow-citizens. We must 
not wantonly trespass upon their property, doing 
injury thereto. They have a right to forbid hunt- 
ing or the picking of flowers upon their land. 
In fact, whenever we go upon the land of another 
person, we do it really without any right, and we 
should be careful not to do any injury to trees or 
fences or buildings. It is also wrong to do any 
act which injures the health of others, such as 
throwing refuse where it may become injurious. 
A man's good name or reputation is his most 
valuable possession. It is, therefore, a great wrong 
to accuse him falsely of having done disreputable 
or criminal acts. 

All such wrongful acts as these are called torts. 



52 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

and they may be punished by the courts. The 
person bringing the action is called the "plaintiff. 
The one of whom he complains is called the 
defendant. Both persons usually have attorneys, 
although in lower courts they will often state their 
own case without any such help. If either 
party desires it, the case will be tried before a 
jury. In a justice court, six or twelve men make 
up the jury. In the higher courts it numbers twelve 
men, just like the jury in criminal cases. If the 
court decide for the plaintiff, it will condemn the 
defendant to the payment of a certain sum of 
money by way of damages. This money is not 
like a fine in a criminal court. A fine for criminal 
action goes to the state. In a civil action, how- 
ever, the damages are paid to the plaintiff. 

Action at Law to be Avoided. — A fair-minded 
citizen will not begin an action at law before he 
has attempted to settle the case outside of court. 
Most cases can be thus settled if both parties are 
reasonable. They will find a common meeting 
ground, a solution of the difficulty, which satisfies 
both. However, if one entirely disregards our 
rights and seems to wish to trample on them, it 
will be a great weakness on our part if we do not 
stand up for what is just. In such a case we are 



PROTECTION OF THE CITIZENS 53 

not only defending our own ri<!;lits, but those of 
all other citizens. 11" we should weakly submit to 
wrong, the rights of (others would also soon be 
attacked. It is only by defending our rights at 
all times against encroachment that we can 
secure and protect them. Sometimes we feel that 
it is less trouble to submit to injury, but it is 
always better to be firm in resisting wrong. Not 
very long ago, when Mark Twain returned to New 
York City from Europe, a hack driver tried to 
exact from him four or five times the regular fare. 
The author was in haste, his time w^as valuable, and 
so the driver thought that it would be easy to 
impose upon him. But he had mistaken his man. 
The passenger insisted that the driver take him 
to the pohce headquarters. There he paid the 
rogue his regular fare, but made complaint of 
him for his exactions, and insisted upon his punish- 
ment for breaking the city ordinance. In speak- 
ing of this occurrence, Mark Tw\ain said, '^ AVe 
can preserve great rights only by standing up for 
little rights." Where everybody is too busy to re- 
sist injustice, the time will come when justice will 
be forgotten, and personal rights will be ignored. 
Imprisonment for Debt. — In former times, and 
not so veiy long ago, those who refused to pay 



54 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

their lawful debts were imprisoned. In our 
country we do not punish debtors in that way. 
We consider it better that such persons should be 
at liberty and be able to earn something in order 
that they may eventually pay their debts. How- 
ever, should a man in obtaining money or goods 
from another person make entirely false state- 
ments of fact, he is guilty of a crime, — that of 
obtaining money or goods under false pretences. 
For this wrong he may be imprisoned. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What would you dp if some one arrested you 
without cause? 

2. What is the meaning of an oath in a law court ? 
What is the punishment of false witnesses ? 

3. What work does the clerk of the court do? 

4. Should firemen and policemen be pensioned ? 

5. Is it right to play ball or to snowball in the 
public streets? Give your reason. 

6. Should a man be forced to pay his just debts if 
he is able to do so ? How can this be done ? 

7. Define tort; quarantine; insurance; bankrupt; 
contagious; compromise. 

S. What is the difference between a civil and a 
criminal court? 

0. What are the duties of a Board of Health ? Why 
necessary ? 



CHAPTER VIII 

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 

A Fundamental Principle. — In most modern 
states, and especially in our own, it is one of the 
principles upon which the state is founded that 
all the people should be trained sufficiently to do 
their own thinking and to be able to take a ])art 
in government as intelligent voters. A republican 
state must be founded upon the intelligence of its 
people. It is, therefore, essential that education 
should be open and free to all. It is because the 
state cannot do its work without intelligent citi- 
zens that it has itself undertaken the work of edu- 
cation. This work is supplemented by private 
schools, but in the main education in our country 
is free. Education tends to make all men equal. 
If they have mental powers that fit them for great 
success in law or in some other profession, or if 
they have talents for invention or for engineering, 
these natural gifts are developed by the schools. 

The Common Schools. — The public school is a 
democratic institution. All kinds of children are 

55 



56 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 




EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 57 

here brought together. Their parents may be 
rich or poor, they may be Enghsh, Itahan, German, 
Irish, or Russian, — to the state they are all alike. 
Their opportunities are the same, and the same 
care is given to their education. Fine large, airy 
school buildings kept clean and neat within 
are provided for all. Attractive pictures and 
statuary make it a pleasure to be within their 
walls, a pleasure that will be long remembered. 
Teachers, trained in public institutions provided 
for that purpose, are in charge, and every facility 
is offered for a complete education. 

The schools are entirely under public control. 
In school elections, in many of our states, women 
have a right to vote as well as men, even where 
they cannot vote in the general elections. This 
right is given them because they have a special 
interest in the training of children, and under- 
stand the best methods of education. The 
schools of a city or town are in charge of a school 
board elected by the people or appointed by the 
mayor. This board appoints the teachers, makes 
regulations for the schools, and administers their 
affairs. It makes contracts for new buildings; 
it selects teachers; it decides upon text-books; 
and it provides whatever may be needed for the 



58 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



efficient working of the schools. In fact, eveiy 
interest connected with school work is controlled 
by this body. The excellence of the system of 
education in any town depends largely upon the 




Lawn and Pavilions. The University of Virginia 

intelligence and public spirit of the school board. 
The official director of the schools in the city or 
town is the superintendent. 

Advanced Schools. — The higher branches of 
learning are taught in high schools and in the 
university. Many of the great universities are 
private institutions, but nearly all the states. 



EDUCATIONAL INSTlTUTlOiNS 



59 



especially in the western part of our country, have 
universities supported by the public. In these 
every variety of training adapted for the develop- 
ment of the varied talents of men and women is 



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offered. In former times, universities existed 
apart from the life of the people. They devoted 
themselves to special refinement and to the study 
of difficult and recondite subjects. To-day, how- 
ever, especially in our own country, the university 
is a part of the life of the people. It interests 



GO CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

itself in the general welfare of the state. It 
works to improve the agriculture, the manufac- 
turing activities, the engineering work, the health, 
the power, of the commonwealth. It exists for 
every citizen. If he has not the leisure to go to the 
university for a period to work there in person, he 
may receive instruction by letter, his questions 
will be answered, and advice will be given. Lec- 
turers are also sent by the university to various 
cities and towns of the state, where, in public dis- 
cussions, they inform the people about things that 
are being done in the world of science. 

Inventions. — The American nation is noted 
for its talent for invention. We readily recall 
many notable inventions that were made in this 
countiy. We need only think of the steam- 
engine, the telegraph, and the telephone. This 
talent for invention is perhaps due to the fact that 
our nation found itself in a new and extensive 
territory, under novel conditions which brought out 
the power to adapt our action to our needs and 
to fit ourselves with new means of supplying them. 
This talent is cultivated b}^ institutions of learning. 
While they cannot endow a man with genius, they 
can give him the materials wherewith to work. 
They can teach him what other people have al- 



EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 61 

reiul}' acliieved and along what lines new enter- 
prises vvill be most promising. 

Public Libraries. — Another great educational in- 
fluence in our countr}^ comes from pubhc libraries. 




Carnegie Library, Nashville, Tennessee 

Nearly every tow^n now has an institution of this 
kind. There we can get stories and books of 
travel to provide entertainment for long wdnter 
evenings. We can also find books which will 
inform us about the history of our own and of 
other nations, about our political institutions, 
about the facts of science, and about many other 
important and useful matters. In every home 
there should be a library of the books that are 
dearest and most useful to the members of the 



62 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

family, but we can none of us own all the books 
we need. The public libraiy enables us to get at 
any time the information required for our purpose. 
We can use it for preparing debates or papers for 
clubs. Very often entertaining and useful lec- 
tures are given at the library. It is an excel- 
lent place to spend a leisure hour, because while 
being most agreeably entertained we are also 
improving our minds and increasing our knowl- 
edge. 

Mr. Carnegie, a man who lacked the advantages 
of an education in his early youth, but who later 
became very successful and immensely rich, has 
given a large number of libraries to our country. 
He has said that it was his purpose that other 
people should be able to have the advantages which 
he lacked. He believes most thoroughly in the 
importance of general" education for the welfare 
of our countiy. Such public gifts are laudable, 
but it would be unfortunate if the people of this 
country were to rely entirely on gifts of this nature. 
That has greatest value which costs us time and 
labor and self-denial. If some generous man has 
provided our town with a library building, we 
should make use of the opportunity and give lib- 
eral support to the libraiy itself, in order that it 



EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 



63 



may make tlio life of our noiglihorliood l)etter in 
every way. 

It is one of the most beneficent features of mod- 
ern civilization that the best thinG;s in life, and the 




New York Public Library 

most interesting, can be brought to us wherever 
we hve. It is not necessary that we hve in New 
York or Chicago in order to get the latest news 
every morning, or to be able to read the great 
works of literature, or to hear fine music and see 
beautiful pictures. All these things are brought 
to us, even in the remotest parts of our country. 



64 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

tliroiigli the inventions by which distance has 
been annihilated and the reproduction of works 
of art has been made possible. So the hbrary in 
every town ought to be the center of interest in the 
wonderful achievements which it is our privilege 
to enjoy. How unfortunate the community which 
lives only for itself, and does not share in the en- 
joyment of art, literature, music, and all the gra- 
cious influences that this marvellous age provides ! 

QUESTIONS 

1. How large is the income of the public library in 
your town, and how is it provided? 

2. Is your school board elected or appointed? 
Name its members. 

3. Should all children be required by law to go to 
school, and is there such a law in your state ? 

4. What is the legal school a'ge in your state? 

5. Should school books be furnished without cost 
to pupils ? Why, or why not ? 

6. Is free education beyond the high school fur- 
nished in your state ? Ought it to be ? 

7. What kind of books are most profitable for 
young people to read ? 

8. What is a self-educated man ? 

9. What does it cost the city or town for your 
schooling for a year? 

10. How much money is paid annually to support 
the schools of your city or town ? 



CHAPTER IX 

PUBLIC CHARITIES 

Caring for the Poor. — Not all the members of 
a community are healthy and fortunate. Eveiy- 
where there are those who through misfortune 
or sickness have been reduced to a state of depend- 
ence. Sometimes this may be their own fault. 
When young and strong and able to work, they 
may have neglected their opportunities or wasted 
their money. When sickness or old age came, 
they could not provide for themselves. As we 
benefit from the industry and wisdom of able and 
fortunate citizens, so we should be willing to bear 
the burden of those who have been unsuccessful 
in life, especially when they are not responsible for 
their misfortunes. 

Private benevolence is doing much for such un- 
fortunate people. It is the duty of a family to 
support relatives who are unable to help them- 
selves. It is unnatural for a son to allow the 
father who has given him support in his youth to 
suffer from ])overty when old. Fortunately, such 

65 



66 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



things rarely hapi)en. Many people not only sup- 
port relatives, but also give to other deserving 
poor, enabling them to tide over times of mis- 
fortune. It is not wise to give aid to every one 
who asks it. An able-bodied man should not be 




Children's School Yard 
The Pittsburgh Playground Association 

supported in idleness by the charities of good- 
natured people. He should be made to earn his 
living. But it is different with people who suffer 
from disease or other misfortunes. To help in 
such cases is a work of humanity. 

The state must undertake to provide for the 
poor, weak, and sick w^ho are not supported by 
private charity. Children left without their par- 
ents must be placed in homes where they will 



PUBLIC CHARITIES 



07 



be given care and education. Tliose who become 
insane must be placed in asylums, the sick in 
hospitals, the aged poor in homes provided for 
them. Many institutions of this kind are sup- 




HospiTAL, Seattle, Washington 



ported by private charity, especially hospitals 
and orphan asylums. The insane are usualty 
taken care of by the" state. 

How to care for the poor is not an easy prob- 
lem. Many of those who most deserve assistance 
are too modest or too proud to ask for it. They 
will perhaps rather die than go to a poor-house, 
although there is no disgrace in poverty when it 
is a pure misfortune. The aid given to the poor 



68 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

is often given in public houses and on farms, 
where all the indigent persons who are dependent 
upon the community are gathered together. By 
helping about the house, and by working on the 
farm, they are made to assist in earning their 
own living. Another method is called out-door 
relief. This refers to the distribution of fuel, 
clothing, and food among the poor. If this sys- 
tem is not managed wisely, it will make paupers 
of many people. Those weak in character and 
with little self-respect will prefer not to work, 
but to rely upon the town or city to provide 
them with the necessities of life. Much harm has 
been done by this system in England. A very 
good method is used in Berlin. There relief will 
be given to poor people in their homes upon the 
advice of responsible men in the neighborhogd 
who know the situation thoroughly, and who 
assist the city officials in their work. 

The most desirable condition for a state or 
community is to have citizens who are neither 
very rich nor very poor. A self-reliant, indepen- 
dent class who have sufficient income for a com- 
fortable living must be the mainstay of a free 
republic. As a nation, we should be a great 
family taking care of our poor. It is to be hoped 



PUBLIC CHARITIES 69 

that ill the future neither the very poor nor the 
very rich will predominate, but that the nation 
may continue to be a nation of citizens inde- 
pendent and self-supporting. 

Other Charities. — Hospitals and asylums for 
the insane, the blind, and other unfortunates are 
found in abundance in our country. Many are 
supported by private gifts and by income from 
their patients. Others are maintained entirely 
at the public expense, and still others jointly by 
these two agencies. The generous provision 
made for the care and comfort of the poor and of 
the unfortunate classes in the community marks 
the highest advance in our civilization. It shows 
the growing spirit of brotherhood and the com- 
mon bond of sympathy and good-will that char- 
acterize and unite the people in these modern 
times. The influence of our nation is gradually 
extending these and kindred blessings through- 
out the world. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What institutions for the care of the sick, poor, 
and insane are there in your city or county ? 

2. What is done in your community to protect 
animals against cruelty? 

3. What are some of the causes of poverty? 



70 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

4. What should be done with able-bodied tramps ? 

5. Which is of greater value, a hospital or a public 
library ? 

6. Is it right to exclude immigrants who come to 
this country with no money whatever ? 

7. Is an old-age pension expedient ? 

8. Are people always made better by receiving 
charity ? Why not ? 

9. Why should the pubhc maintain hospitals and 
asylums ? 

10. How is a person adjudged insane ? 



CHAPTER X 

THE HIGHWAYS 

Good Roads. — It has been said that the 
civihzatioii of a country can be measured by 
the excellence of its roads. If we should travel 
in certain parts of England to-day, some com- 
panion might remark, '^ We are now traveling 
on Watling Street." This is an old Roman road 
built over two thousand years ago. The Romans 
built these excellent highways, which were as 
straight and level as a modern railway road-bed, 
in order that their troops might march rapidly 
from one part of the empire to the other. They 
built them in so solid a manner that though the 
surface has required repair from time to time, 
the substructure of the road is as . sound as it 
ever was. Still for centuries and centuries to 
come man will be able to use these great works 
of Roman civilization. 

Although we have railways, steel-bound roads 
over which trains are hurrying from one end of 

71 



72 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the country to the other, we also need other 
highways better than have been constructed 
heretofore in our country. The products which 
are hauled over our roads exceed in value those 
that are carried by railway. Yet, consider what 
inconvenience it is to farmers to drive for ten 
or twelve miles over roads which during many 
times in the year are almost bottomless. Money 
expended to improve these highways will cer- 
tainly bring abundant returns. Not only will 
farmers and men who haul lumber and building 
stone benefit from such improvements, but they 
will be an advantage to every person living in the 
land. Automobiles will, perhaps, soon be so in- 
expensive that nearly every one will be able to 
afford what is now a luxury. We may then enjoy 
the delights of travel among the beautiful lakes, 
mountains, and forests of our commonwealth. 
Nothing brings more joy and health than life 
out of doors, and good roads will attract people 
to spend more time with nature. In the use of 
roads we should, of course, be careful of the 
rights of others. A man who drives an auto- 
mobile on a public highway as if he were on 
a private speedway deserves severe treatment. 
Every one of us is interested in having speed 



THE HIGHWAYS 



73 




Finished Roao 



74 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



limits observed, for otherwise no one could use 
the roads in safety and comfort. 

Country Roads. — In count ly districts the care 
of roads is usually in the hands of towns or coun- 



r\ 



A Modern Bridge 



ties. These roads are not often scientifically 
built; but the tax-paying citizens get together 
and work off their road tax or poll-tax by making 
improvements under the direction of an official 
selected for the purpose. There is need of more 
instruction in road making, so that the work 
will be permanently useful. The building of 
streets in cities is a more difficult matter, because 
such streets are in constant use, and so need to 



THE JUCllWAYS 75 

be far more durable than country roads. 'J'he 
riglit kind of pavement must be selected and 
care taken that the streets are kept in gcjod 
repair. 

Clean Streets. — Nothing presents a more un- 
pleasant aspect than a town with neglected 
streets, filled with rubbish heaps and weeds, 
blocked up by boxes and wood-piles. It docs 
not take a traveler long to form an opinion 
of the character of the inhabitants of such a 
place, especially if he comes from a town where 
the streets are kept clean, where weeds are not 
allowed to grow, where ashes and rubbish are 
removed promptly, and where in business streets 
the pavement and the sidewalks are kept clear 
of boxes and crates. The appearance of streets 
is very much improved by shade trees and strips 
of lawn. There should be some system in plant- 
ing trees. Some streets might have elms, others 
maples, others walnuts. They should be planted 
at proper distances apart. It is, therefore, desir- 
able that there should be in every town or city 
some official familiar with landscape gardening, 
who can advise the people upon the best arrange- 
ment of parks, trees, and lawns. 

The city or town is our home just as much as 



7G CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the house in which we Uve. As we take pride 
in having our rooms swept and clean, our houses 
painted, our lawns clear of leaves and rubbish, 




A Public Park 



so no less should we take pride in beautifying 
our city or village. Attractive surroundings make 
every hour of our lives more enjoyable. 

Parks and Playgrounds. — Parks are to a city 
what a flower-garden is to a home. They do not 
hv'mg any income, but in the enjoyment which 
the people get from them they pa}^ many times 
over for any outlay of money which they may 



THE HIGHWAYS 77 

require. Some of our large cities have very ex- 
tensive park systems. Central Park in New 
York, Lincoln Park in Chicago, Fairmount Park 
in Philadelphia, are extensive grounds beautified 
by trees, shrubs, and flowers., with lakes, water- 
falls, and fountains to furnish variety, and col- 
lections of wild animals to lend interest. In 
many parks monuments are found erected to 
statesmen and other citizens who have been 
benefactors of the community. Great poets and 
writers whose works have given joy and strength 
are also honored in this way. 

Many cities throughout the country are pro- 
viding playgrounds for children. These are fur- 
nished with gymnastic apparatus, swimming-pools, 
and a full equipment for games and sport of all 
kinds. Large sums of money are raised to main- 
tain these playgrounds. Fresh air, regulated 
amusement, and wise physical exercise are recog- 
nized as necessary to health. 

Streets, parks, libraries, public picture galleries, 
are our property. They exist for our advantage. 
In former times the palace of the lord would 
have a beautiful park adjoining it. In the high 
halls within he would accumulate paintings and 
art treasures, l)ut no one would be admitted to 



78 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



see these beautiful things unless he were a friend 
of the owner. To-day the people themselves 
own palaces of this kind. The library buildings, 
the art galleries, the museums, are palaces as 






Children's Playground in Central Park, New York 

beautiful in architecture as any that may be 
found. Here the people are at home. These 
beautiful buildings exist for our advantage. But 
as we own them we must also take care of them, 
preserve their beauty intact, make use of the 
advantages they offer, and be willing to support 
them by our own contributions. 



QUESTIONS 

1. How far do you think that the states should 
support and control the building of country roads? 



THE HIGHWAYS 79 

2. Would it be better if people paid their road tax 
in money instead of working it off? 

3. Why are our country roads generally so poor? 

4. What would you do if a telephone or electric- 
light company should want to cut down a favorite 
tree in the street in front of your house, in order to 
make room for a pole for wires? 

5. How are ashes and garbage disposed of in your 
town? 

6. Are the streets which you use kept clean and 
free from rubbish? 

7. What is the condition of the grounds around 
your schoolhouse? Suggest some improvements. 

8. What do you think of an organization among 
school children to aid in keeping streets clean and 
making school grounds attractive ? 

9. What are some arguments in favor of pu])lic 
playgrounds ? 

10. Why should free baths and gymnasiums be 
furnished at public expense? 

1 1 . Make a list of the monuments erected in honor 
of famous men, which you have seen. 

12. What advantages do good roads give the farmers? 

13. Are you doing your part in keeping the streets 
of your city clean ? 

14. What can you do to bring about cleaner streets? 
Will you try ? 



CHAPTER XI 

PUBLIC WORKS IN CITIES 

City versus Country. — If we lived in the coun- 
try, we should depend upon wells for water for 
domestic uses. For light we should burn kero- 
sene, or possibly candles. Horses would furnish 
our means of getting from place to place. In 
cities, however, these inconvenient methods have 
been set aside, and united action has given us 
what is much better. Our water is supplied 
from distant reservoirs and brought through 
pipes to our houses. Gas or electricity from 
some public source of supply furnishes us a 
brilliant light. Electric cars carry us quickly 
wherever we wish to go at trifling cost. All 
these things become so necessary that w^e cannot 
get along without them. A street railway presi- 
dent was once asked what a person should do 
when the railways charge too much. He an- 
swered, " Let him walk." That was not a fair 
answer, because, under the conditions of city life, 

80 



PUBLIC WORKS IN CITIES 



81 



most of us are obliged to use the electric cars. 
Some of these public works have been built and 
are maintained by the community itself. Most 







•-#*'"• *'*«'^ 



A Water Reservoir, Boston Waterworks. Wachusett Dam, 
Clinton 

cities own their waterworks and supply water 
at fixed rates to the people. The cities also con- 
struct sewers through which the waste is carried 
off. 

Public Franchises. — Private companies or cor- 
porations, however, generally supply the pu})lic 
with light, transportation, telephones, etc. They 



82 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

get the right to furnish these things through what 
is called a charter or frmichise. A franchise may 
be defined as the contract of a city or town with 
a corporation by which the latter is given the 
right to use the public streets for railway tracks, 
electric-light and telephone poles, and similar 
purposes. Through the franchise the corpora- 
tion is also authorized to charge a certain price 
for its service to the public. It will readily be 
seen that the proper fulfilment of these con- 
tracts is very important. It makes a great 
difference whether the light furnished us is poor 
and expensive or of good quality and cheap, and 
it is essential that street-cars should be clean, 
the service regular and rapid, and the fare reason- 
able. We are, therefore, greatly interested in the 
contracts which our city government makes with 
public corporations. These contracts should be 
publicly made so that the people may know 
about them and have the opportunity of criti- 
cising them. Franchises are valuable property, 
and they should not be granted for an indefi- 
nite time without a proper return. They should 
provide for fair rates and good service, as well 
as for safety appliances by which accidents may 
be prevented. 



PUBLIC WORKS IN CITIES 83 

Public Utilities Commissions. — In some states 
public utilities coiiiiiiissions have been created. 
If we are dissatisfied with the service given 
by a })ublic service corporation, if our elec- 
tric lights will not burn, if the street-cars do 
not run on time, if unreasonable rates are charged, 
we can appeal to this commission and bring our 
complaint before it. The corporations which in- 
vest their money in such industries should, of 
course, be protected so that they may receive 
a fair return upon their investment. But they 
should not be permitted to tax the people for 
services which have never been performed or for 
values which have no real existence. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What public works are being managed by your 
city government ? 

2. Should the city manage the gas and electric light 
plants ? 

3. Could the street railways use steam locomotives ? 

4. Where is the drinking water in your house ob- 
tained? What does it cost you? 

5. What kind of Hght do you have in your home, 
and how and where is it produced? 

6. What is a franchise ? How obtained ? 



CHAPTER XII 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC WEALTH: 
WATERWAYS 

Our Natural Resources. — Nature has endowed 
our country with ahnost unequaled wealth in 
forests, mineS; agricultural lands^ and other 
natural resources. AVe ought not, however, to 
act as if this wealth were inexhaustible. As a 
matter of fact, veiy much of it has already been 
wasted and carelessly destroyed. The prices of 
commodities like lumber are already veiy much 
higher than they should be in a new country. 
This is due to the fact that the timber was not 
properly protected, so that forest fires, started by 
negligence, were allowed to destroy millions of 
dollars' worth of fine timber. The time has now 
come when our nation is beginning to take far 
greater care of its natural wealth. It is pro- 
tecting its timber, replanting its forests, and 
giving attention to the proper use of mineral 

and agricultural lands. 

84 



THE DEVELOPiMENT OF PUBLIC WEALTH 85 

Transportation. — Nothing is more important 
to the development of the wealth of a country 
than cheap transportation. If machinery can l)e 




Yellow Pine Forest, California 

carried inexpensively to the mines and forests^ 
and the products of the latter can be returned to 
the large cities, the centers of industry, the entire 
nation will be prosperous and wealthy. Rail- 
ways are the main reliance for transportation, 
but they can never be so inexpensive as the 
natural roads provided by rivers and by canals 
built by engineering enterprise. The Mississippi 



86 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

River, with all its tributaries, the Columbia River, 
the Hudson, the Erie Canal, and the Great Lakes, 
are only some of the most important of such 
water ways. To give some idea of the amount of 
merchandise carried in this way, it will be suffi- 
cient to say that the shipping which goes through 
Lake Huron is several times the shipping that 
goes out of the great port of New York. It is, 
therefore, plain that the improvement of such 
water ways is greatly to be desired. In order 
that the water in the rivers may be sufficient 
and uniform in quantity, it is necessaiy that our 
forests should be preserved against further de- 
struction. The work of improving these water 
ways is undertaken chiefly by the national gov- 
ernment, which also improves our harbors and 
constructs our harbor works. Whether the har- 
bor is on a river, like New Orleans, or a lake, like 
Milwaukee, or on the ocean, like San Diego, the 
cost of improvements, dredging and marking the 
channel, building breakwaters, piers, and jetties, 
is borne by the nation as a whole. 

Lighthouses. — The nation also provides for 
the safety of the coasts, by the construction and 
maintenance of lighthouses. Eveiy headland, 
the entrance to every harbor, every prominent or 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC WEALTH 87 



dangerous point on the Great Lakes, has its Hght 
to warn and guide the mariner. These beacons 
vary in construc- 
tion and charac- 
ter. They are 
marked on saihng 
charts, and are of 
priceless vakie. 
Indeed, without 
them the naviga- 
tion of the coasts, 
the lakes, and the 
rivers would be 
impossible. 

They are built 
and supported by 
the government 
at an expense 
of millions annu- 
ally. There are 

more than 3300 lighthouses and lighted aids to 
navigation in this country, 1800 being post lights 
used chiefly on rivers. They are of inestimable 
value in preserving life and property. 

Life-saving Service. — The United States gov- 
ernment also maintains the life-savin": service. 




Lighthouse 



ss 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



There are over two hundred and seventy stations 
on the Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific, 
and the Great Lakes. To support these costs 
$2,000,000 a year. But in one year, 1906, the 




Breeches-buoy Drill 
Man being taken off wreck 

service saved fifty-three hundred lives and 
$12,000,000 worth of property. 

In a life-saving station a member of the crew 
is always in the lookout tower searching with 
the aid of strong glasses for any signal of distress. 
Others patrol the shore for the same purpose. 
Should a vessel be in danger at night, it will send 
up sky-rockets as a call for help. As soon as a 
vessel in this condition is discovered, the life- 
saving crew mans the life-boat and rows out to 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC WEALTH 80 

(lie ship to rescue^ those in jM'rih Soincliincs tlic 
sea is so rouoh or tlie hrenkers so high that no 
boat can reach the sliip. Then a rope is attached 
to a heav}' coi)i)er ball and shot from the shore 
over the ship, so that it may be caught in the 
rigging. This rope is then fastened taut to the 
masts and to a post on shore, and in a large 
basket slung to it, those on the ship are brought 
safely to the land. All the operations of the life- 
saving service require great promptness, courage, 
coolness, and skill. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name some of the means of transportation used 
in various parts of the world. 

2. Which are the two most important? 

3. Which of these is the cheaper, and why ? 

4. Mention some of the principal water ways of the 
United States. 

5. Show the value of the proposed water way from 
Chicago to New Orleans. 

6. What are some of the essentials of a good harbor ? 

7. Find out the different kinds of lighthouses and 
lights used in them. 

8. What are bell-buoys ? Fog whistles ? Post lights ? 

9. Which is of greater value, the lighthouse or the 
life-saving service ? 

10. What are some of the qualities required of men 
in these two kinds of public service? 

1 1. What is the use of a lock in a canal? 



CHAPTER XIII 

FORESTS 

The Value of Forests. — One of the greatest 
sources of wealth in a countiy consists of its 
forests. Not only do forests furnish material for 
houses, shipSj furniture, railways, firewood, etc., 
but large forest areas also preserve the rainfall 
and keep the rivers from diying up. They make 
the rainfall regular, so that the country does not 
suffer from long periods of drought which are so 
destructive to the products of the farm. The 
territory of the United States was originally 
covered with vast forests. Many valuable kinds 
of timber abounded, — pine, fir, hemlock, oak, and 
others. When the settlers entered these primeval 
forests, they destroyed large sections by fire in 
order to get land for farming. As a nation needs 
a large amount of farm land, this action of the 
early settlers was necessary. As our nation grew, 
much timber was needed for houses, bridges, 
and other purposes. 

90 



FORESTS 



91 



Destruction of Forests. — Tlic forests were in 
large i)art sold by the government to citizens 
and corporations. These owners desired to make 
money as fast as possible. They, therefore, at 



At M 


i'i \ 




i« 


mm 


^wmI 


■^ 




^•■. •< 




f:*«iil^iil 


f fifiwi 


i. 


^ =' -f-ki 


M. 


, -il 


^ ; _ . - 1^-' / 








^lj^ii;^^0^l^^^^ 


S^--^■•^,^^:■-S^^■ ■ 


^^^^,„^^ '#"' 


"^-^^m^m^^m 





LoDGEPOLE Pine, Oregon 
Result of a careless fire. — Reforestation 



once cut down the timber, and did not replace 
the trees by planting. Moreover, they were not 
able properly to guard the forests against fires. 
Forest fires, starting perhaps from a carelessly 
laid camp fire of hunters, swept over the area of 
whole counties, destroying timber to the value of 
many milHon dollars in a few days. If utter 
wastefulness and lack of care should continue, 
the nation would soon be robbed of all its forest 
wealth. 



92 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Forest Reserves. — Successive presidents of the 
United States, Mr. Cleveland, Mr. McKinley, and 
Mr. Roosevelt, took up this matter and urged 
legislation upon Congress by which our forests 




Two Years from Sage Brush, Idaho, by Irrigation 

would be protected. Large national /ores^ reserves 
were created. These forest reserves comprise an 
area of over one hundred thousand square miles, 
being larger than the states of Wisconsin and 
Illinois taken together. These reserves are 
watched over by men called rangers, employed 
by the government. The careless laying of fires 
is entirely forbidden, and people who endanger the 
forests by carelessness will be punished. 
The timber on these forest resei'ves is sold to 



FORESTS ()3 

individuals or corporations at a fixed price. They 
may cut it and carry it off to be sawed into lumber. 
The government plants new trees in the place of 
those which have been cut down, so that an after- 
growth of timber will always keep up the original 
value of the land. These forest reserves are so 
located that they protect the head waters of our 
great rivers and secure a uniform flow of water 
throughout the year. 

If farmers desire to settle in the forest reserves, 
taking up land suitable for agriculture, they are 
permitted to do so. In this way all the lands 
vvliich can be used for farming will be put under 
cultivation. The right of grazing cattle over the 
forest areas will also be granted for a proper 
remuneration to persons who own herds which 
they desire to pasture in the forest regions. In 
this manner it is believed that the full value of 
our great forests will be realized. The lumber- 
man, the miner, the cattle owner, the farmer, 
will all be able, under reasonable restrictions and 
for proper comi)ensation, to make use of these 
national reserves. None will be permitted to ex- 
haust them or to destroy their value. Moreover, 
the lower lands will be improved by having water 
in the rivers, which can be used for irrigation and 



94 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



for carrying lumber and other produce to the 
markets. 

Irrigation. — A large part of the land in our 
Western states is without rainfall, or receives so 




An Irrigating Ditch, Washington 

little rain that farming cannot be carried on 
successfully. The soil in much of this land is 
veiy fertile, so that if a water supply can be pro- 
vided, it will produce even finer crops than an 
ordinary farming country. Here, too, the gov- 
ernment is assisting the people to develop our 
natural wealth. It is constructing large reser- 
voirs in which during the rainy season the waters 
of the rivers are gathered. These waters are 
then distributed over the adjoining lands by 



FORESTS 9') 

means of irrigation canals. Where formerly there 
was a desert; barren and wild, growing nothing 
but rough bushes and rank weeds^ there are now 
found beautiful fruit orchards and fields of wav- 
ing grain. 

State Reservations. — Many of the states have 
likewise created forest reserves upon land belong- 
ing to them in order to preserve fine forest areas. 
They are managed in much the same way as the 
national reservations, although, of course, much 
smaller. The work of a forester or forest ranger 
is very healthful and interesting. He rides horse- 
back from sunrise to sunset through the most 
beautiful forest and mountain scenery, visiting 
agricultural settlements and passing through 
the wooded areas to see that no illegal act is 
committed. 

National Parks. — Some of the most attractive 
regions in our country have been reserved by the 
nation or by a state as public parks. In these 
no lands may be sold or leased, but they are kept 
entirely for the enjoyment of the public. The}^ 
are great national pleasure grounds where we 
may go to enjoy the marvellous beauty of nature. 
Such is the Yellowstone National Park, with its 
grand mountain scenery, its geysers, its water- 



96 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

falls, and the gorgeous coloring of its rocks. 
Such is the Yosemite Park in California, which is 
famous the world over for its scenery. Itasca 




View in one of our National Parks 

Park, at the head waters of the Mississippi River 
in the state of Minnesota, Niagara Falls Park in 
New York, overlooking one of the wonders of 
nature, and the Adirondack Park in the same 
state, amidst the delightful mountain scenery 
adjoining Lake Champlain, — these are some of 
the parks maintained by states. We should as a 
nation and as commonwealths preserve and pro- 



FORESTS 97 

tect these beautiful regions which nature^ has 
created for the deUght of mankind. No money 
can restore their beauty when once it has been 
destroyed. If the Falls of Niagara should be 
dried up by having the waters of the lake drawn 
off to furnish an electric current for New York 
City, a few men would be enriched, but the naticm 
would be poorer })y the loss of one of the marvels 
of nature that has made our country famous the 
world over. We should, therefore, strive to pre- 
serve whatever is beautiful or useful in natui-e 
in our neighborhood and in the country at large. 

' QUESTIONS 

1 . What is a forest reserve ? Why necessary, and 
how used ? 

2. What is irrigation ? Where used ? Does irriga- 
tion pay ? 

3. What are the duties of a forest ranger ? 

4. Name four National Parks. 

5. Why should these parks be maintained ])y the 
govermnent ? 



CHAPTER XIV 

PUBLIC LANDS 

The Homestead Act. — The lands of our country 
originally belonged to the government, but the 
larger part of them has been sold to individuals 
or corporations. Much land has been disposed 
of under the homestead act. By this act any 
citizen is permitted to take up a claim of one 
hundred and sixty acres of agricultural land. If 
he resides thereon for five years, cultivating a 
part of it, it will become his own absolutely at 
the end of that period. Under our national laws, 
mining and timber claims can also be taken up 
by individuals in return for a certain payment 
to the government. These acts do not apply to 
the forest reserves which we have already de- 
scribed and w^here special regulations are enforced. 

Aids to Agriculture. — The nation and the 

states exert themselves to make farming more 

and more profitable and productive. In order to 

give farmers an opportunity to raise new kinds 

of crops, seeds are distributed by the federal 

98 



PUBLIC LANDS 99 

government free of charge. These are not ordi- 
nary seeds which every one can readily obtain, 
but they produce new varieties of grains, vege- 
tables, or fruits, the introduction of which will 
really benefit a farming community. Experts 
employed by the government are also studying 
the introduction of new plants which have not 
been cultivated in our country before, or of varie- 
ties of plants more productive than those now in 
use. So a new kind of wheat was recently brought 
from Alaska. It is an especially fertile and hardy 
variety. Under the cold and unfavorable condi- 
tions in the northern territory it seems that the 
wheat had to make special effort to become 
strong and healthy, and that it succeeded in 
this effort. Our country uses large quantities of 
coffee, tea, and rice, most of which is imported 
from foreign countries. Rice cultivation has, 
however, now been developed in the South. 
Government experts have also shown that tea of 
a superior quality can be grown on the hills and 
highlands of our Southern states. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Find out more fully what is necessary in order 
to obtain a homestead from the government. 



100 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

2. Are there any forest reserves in your state ? 

3. Is there still much pubUc land in your state ? 

4. How do forests atfect the rainfall ? 

5. Tell the meaning of primeval; homestead; 
ranger; agriculture; irrigation; geyser. 

6. Give some reasons why forests should be pre- 
served. 

7. Give some facts about the Yellowstone or Yo- 
semite Park. 

8. Of what value is Niagara Falls ? How may it 
be destroyed ? 

9. Should the government furnish seeds without 
cost to farmers ? 

10. Find out all you can about the growing of rice. 

11. From what country do we import the most rice ? 
Why? 

12. How can you obtain the seeds furnished by the 
government ? 

13. Why should the government or the state estab- 
lish agricultural schools ? Are there any in your state ? 
Where ? 



CHAPTER XV 

MONEY 

The Medium of Exchange. — Money is one of 
the most necessary instruments of modern civiliza- 
tion. We all know how necessary it is to our own 
personal convenience. If there were no money, 
all exchanges would have to be made directly. If 
we had manufactured some chairs, but needed a 
horse, we should have to hunt about for a man 
who was in need of chairs and desired to disi)ose of 
a horse. Money enables us to save all this trouble. 
The man who wants our chairs comes to us and 
pays us in cash, which we can take and exchange 
for anything we desire. It is, however, very im- 
portant that this money should be the same the 
country over, and that it should be perfectly safe 
and stable in its value. If a dollar should be 
worth one hundred cents to-day and only seventy- 
five cents next month, great loss and uncertainty 
would result in business affairs. 

The National Mint. — The government under- 
takes to give us a stable national currency. The 

101 



102 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

national government has the sole right to coin 
money and to issue paper currency. Even if one 
took the pure silver and stamped upon it the same 




The United States Mint, Philadelphia 

devices that are seen on our dollar, his action would 
be against the law and would be punished. No 
one is permitted to issue money except the govern- 
ment of the nation. The money issued is either 
of metal or of paper. We have copper cents; 
nickel five-cent pieces; silver dimes, quarters, 
half dollars, and dollars; gold dollars, and five-, 
ten-, and twenty-dollar gold coins. The ten-dollar 
coin is also called an eagle, but this name is not 
frequently used. If we owe money to any one 
and offer him gold or silver dollars, he is obliged to 
accept this money in payment for the debt. We 



MONEY 103 

say that such money is legal tender, because, when 
we tender it, it must be accepted by tlie creditor. 
Not all coins are legal tender. Thus, copper coins 
are legal tender only up to the amount of thirty 
cents. If we should go v/ith a wheelbarrow full 
of cents to pay a debt of $50, our creditor could 
refuse to take the coins and demand payment 
in silver or gold. 

A Substitute for Coin. — Paper money is also 
issued by the government, although some of it 
bears the imprint of the national banks. National 
bank-notes are secured by the government, and 
are, therefore, as good as other currency. The 
government should not issue more paper money 
than its credit allows. We should be able to get 
gold or silver at any time for the paper issued by 
the government. If the government should issue 
too much paper money, it would fall in value and 
cause great confusion and loss. No matter how 
rich a government is, its credit is limited, like that 
of an individual. In other words, there is a limit 
beyond which people will not lend it any money. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What gives coin its value? 

2. What gives a ten-dollar bill its value? 



104 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

3. What substitutes for gold and silver money were 
used in early times ? 

4. What is counterfeiting ? Why o\ight it to be 
punished ? 

5. Why is gold better than silver for coins ? 

6. For what amount is silver legal tender ? 

7. Why cannot state governments coin money ? 

8. Describe the designs on United States coins. 

9. What means are taken to prevent the counter- 
feiting of our currency ? 

10. What is a mint ? Where are the United States 
mints located ? 

11. Do all peoples use money as a medium of ex- 
change ? Why not ? 

12. Why are some coins worth more than their face 
value ? Name two. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE MAILS 

Transmission of Letters. — One of the most 
important branches of the federal government is 
the Post-office Department. Long ago, if one 
desired to send a letter to a person at a distance, 
he would have to employ a special messenger for 
the purpose. Later, the service of carrying letters 
for the public was conducted by private enter- 
prise. By the time our government was founded, 
other governments had established a mail service, 
so that this became one of the lines of work under- 
taken by the United States from the beginning. 
It is a great convenience to be able to drop a letter 
into a near-by mail-box, and without further care, 
and at a trifling expense, to have it delivered safely 
and quickly in the most distant part of the 
country, or even beyond the seas. Business could 
not be now carried on properly without such rapid 
communication. 

Postmasters. — At the present time — 1909 — 
there are about seventy-seven thousand j^ost- 

105 



106 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



offices in the United States. They are divided 
into four classes, according to the amount of 
business done in each. There are five thousand 




.■iJSsi,.: W^ ''W''\\ 



miB:m.m 



^i^^i^sfcito 




A United States Post-office in i^LORiDA 
Typical of the new buildings 

post-offices of the first three classes. The post- 
masters in these are appointed by the President, 
with the approval of the Senate. The postmas- 
ters of the fourth class, of which there are seventy- 
two thousand, are appointed by the Postmaster 
General. He generally appoints a citizen of a 
locality whose friends and neighbors support him. 
Women may also fill such positions, as post- 
mistresses. 



THE MAILS 107 

The isubordiiiate officials in the larger i)()st- 
o dices are appointed after examination in the 
various connnon and high-school l)ranches. 
Those who pass have their names enrolled on a 
list from which the appointments must be made. 
A mail-clerk must have a good knowledge of the 
geography of this and other countries. lie must 
know by what routes certain post-offices can be 
reached. If a letter is to be sent to China, he 
n.iust know whether the next steamer leaves from 
San Francisco or Seattle or Vancouver. As he 
has thousands of letters and packages to distribute 
every day, this knowledge must always be instantly 
ready. 

Railway Mail Service. — The railway mail serv- 
ice also requires much intelligent and rapid 
work. We have all seen a mail-car and observed 
its internal arrangement. A large number of 
mail-bags are hung up along the inside of the car. 
There is a mail-bag for every town on the route of 
the train and fo^ important cities farther along. 
As the mail is hastily dumped into the mail-car at 
the different stations, the mail-clerk sorts it and 
places every individual piece in the proper pouch. 

The railway companies are paid veiy liberally 
for carrying the mails. It is difficult to determine 



108 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

just how much they should receive for this service, 
because the amount of mail that is sent over the 
line varies greatly from time to time. The govern- 
ment pays for the use of the mail-cars, but per- 




Chicago and Northwestern Railway Depot 
This depot, with land and approaches, will cost $20,000,000 

haps it would be better if it owned all the cars 
used in the service. 

Classes of Mail Matter. — Mail matter is divided 
into four classes. In the first class are letters and 
sealed packages, or anything containing writing. 
The rate on this class is two cents for each ounce. 
The second-class mail is composed of newspapers 
and magazines sent out directly by the publishers. 
They pay only one cent a pound. This rate is, 
of course, far too small to pay the actual expenses 
of the service of handling this mail. It is, how- 
ever, looked upon as educational work to dis- 



THE MAILS 109 

tribute cheaply among the jjeople of the nation 
newspapers and magazine hterature. \\'hen a 
newspaper is sent through the mails by a person 
other than the publisher, the iDostage is one cent 
for each four ounces. The third class comprises 
books and other printed matter, on which the rate 
is one cent for two ounces. General merchandise, 
in the fourth class, is carried at one cent per ounce. 
But a special tariff, varying with distance, regu- 
lates the charges for carrying parcels. 

Money-orders. — Post-offices also issue money- 
orders, by means of which money is transmitted 
from one place to another. Should a person desire 
an acknowledgment of the receipt of a letter or 
package sent, it is registered by the post-office 
and placed in a special envelope to insure safe 
delivery. The income of the government from all 
these sources is very large, and yet it is not sufficient 
to pay the expenses of the service. The salary 
of one hundred and fifty thousand postmasters 
and employees, the charges paid to the railways for 
carrying the mails, the cost of new buildings, and 
similar expenses exceed the income of the service 
by many million dollars. The total cost of the 
service at the present time is over $200,000,000 
a year. 



110 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Parcel Post. — The parcel post service has been 
extended (March, 1914) to include matter in the 
third and fourth classification, mentioned on page 
109. Packages up to fifty pounds are now carried 
through the mails at very low rates. These rates 
vary according to distance from mailing point. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How much would it cost to send this book 
through the mails? 

2. Describe the work of a postmaster. 

3. Why should the government charge more for 
carrying a letter than a newspaper? 

4. To send a* letter from Boston to Chicago once 
cost twenty-five cents. Now it costs two cents. Ac- 
count for the difference in cost. 

5. What do the letters R.F.D. stand for? 

6. What is meant by " parcel post " ? Postal 
savings banks? The International Postal Union? 
Money orders? 

7. What is a parcel post '' zone " ? Will the par- 
cel post be of help to farmers? To city people? Why? 

8. What does it cost to send a letter from San 
Francisco to London? To Paris? To Peking? 

9. In what countries have postal savings banks 
been established? 

10. What advantage are they to the people? 

11. In what class is your post-office? Why? 

12. What is the salary of your postmaster? 

13. AVhat are the proper ways to send nionej^ by 
mail? Why? 



CHAPTER XVII 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS 

Our Relations with Other Nations. — Our nation 
is so great, rich, and powerful that it might seem 
in no way dependent on any one else, that it could 
do what it pleased and get w^hat it wished by its 
own strength. Yet this is not the case. Eveiy 
nation, no matter how strong, is in some way 
dependent upon other countries and other parts 
of the world. It is a member of the family of 
nations, and it must exert itself to be in good re- 
lations with its neighbors. As we are polite and 
considerate to i)ersons with whom we come in 
contact in our daily life, so nations should be 
considerate of one another. They should respect 
one another's rights and not do anything from a 
feeling of hostility or malice. 

The Promotion of Commerce. — If we consider 

a little, we shall see how dependent we are upon 

other parts of the world in certain matters. In 

our daily life we need very many things which 

111 



112 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



are not produced in our country. The products 
of the tropics Uke quinine^ rubber, precious woods 









\ ^, - . -^^^^w^^ 





A SiiiiTixG ScK-XK IX Ni:a\' York 



like mahogany and ebony, articles of food like 
coffee and tea, are not produced in our countiy. 
Many other things which we need are not raised 
in sufficiently large quantities to satisfy our needs. 
For all these things we have to depend on others. 
We have to purchase them from the producers in 
other countries. There are also many manufac- 
tured articles which the people in foreign countries 
can make better or cheaper than they can be pro- 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 113 

cluced here; so that we buy them from abroad. 
On the other hand, we desire to sell to the people 
of other countries the products of our manufac- 
tories and of our farms. In many lines we produce 
and manufacture more than we can use for our- 
selves. By selling the things we do not need to 
other nations, we secure money with which to buy 
foreign products which are necessary for our con- 
venience or welfare. So we have many business 
relations with other countries. A\e also want 
some of our engineers to go to other parts of .the 
world to build railways or bridges, or to set up 
great electrical plants for providing cities with light 
and power. If we all had to stay at home and 
confine our work and trade to our own country, we 
should lose many advantages. 

Passports. — In order that all these activities 
may go on, our government makes agreements or 
treaties with other countries by which our com- 
merce is protected and by which our citizens are 
permitted to travel freely and safely in foreign 
lands. Before leaving this country for foreign 
parts, an American citizen will obtain from the 
government a passport. This is a document 
signed by the Secretary of State, in which the name 
and a description of the bearer are given, and 



114 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

which calls upon a foreign government to afford 
him protection and other privileges. In other 
countries, should one desire the government to 
interfere in his behalf, he will show his passport 
and thus prove his right to protection. As we 
expect these favors from foreign governments, we 
should be hospitable to their citizens who come to 
our shores. 

Diplomats. — In order that our interests and 
our citizens may be protected in foreign countries, 
our government has representatives stationed in 
all parts of the world. These are either diplomats 
or consuls. The diplomats— ambassadors, envoys, 
and ministers — represent the political interests 
of the nation. They report to our State Depart- 
ment about conditions in foreign countries, and 
when treaties are to be made, they represent our 
government. Great honor is accorded to diplo- 
mats because they are held to represent the maj- 
esty of their country. Their persons are sacred, 
and they cannot be arrested or interfered with in 
any manner by the foreign government. It was, 
therefore, a serious breach of law when the Chinese 
populace in Peking in 1900 attacked the legations 
and threatened to kill the representatives of other 
nations and their families. A nation permitting 



FORElCl^I AFFAIRS 215 

such a crime i.s severely dealt with l,y the other 
countries. 

Consuls. -The consul, are officials who look 
after the commercial interests of our county' 
lliey make rejjorts up.m opportunities for in- 
troducmg American goods and manufactures 
in foreign lands. When merchandise h imported 
they issue a certificate of its value, called an in- 
voice. The consuls are intrusted with the special 
care of American sailors who may find themselves 
in foreign ports. They must see that the contracts 
made with these sailors are duly fulfilled, an.l 
that they are not dismissed from a slii,, without 
proper payment. In every way the consuls will 
also protect and care for the interests of citizens 
traveling abroad. When one finds himself in a 
foreign city, it is veiy pleasant to see the Unitecl 
States coat of arms above a doorway or to see 
the United States flag floating there. This indi- 
cates the home or office of a consul or dinlomat 
Americans are always welcome in such places 
but they slfould be careful not to trouble the con- 
suls, who are very busy men, with private affairs 
unless a real need exists. 

The State Department. - All these officials are 
under the control of the Department of State, 



116 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



at the head of which is the highest official in the 
cabinet, tlie Secretary of State. This department 
watches over our interests in foreign countries. 
If the goods of American merchants are boycotted 




International Bureau of the American Republics 

in China, the State Department wiU try to induce 
the Chinese government to protect our commerce. 
When a European countr}^ threatens to exclude our 
goods, the State Department will attempt to make 
a treaty by which their continued admission will 
he secured. These are examples of the many ways 
in which the State Department protects the in- 
terests of our commerce. But it is not only 
commerce, but every interest and pursuit of the 
American people, that the State Department 
makes its own and looks after in foreign lands. 



FOREir.N AFFAIRS 117 

Treaties. — When a treaty has been worked out 
by the Department of State and agreed to by the 
foreign government with which it is made, the 
President will submit it to the Senate. Under the 
Constitution, the Senate must be consulted con- 
cerning every treaty, and no treaty will go into 
force without its approval. This gives the Senate 
great power over our foreign affairs. It is to l)e 
desired that while we stand up for our own inter- 
ests and rights, we also respect those of other 
countries and be willing to work with them for 
the benefit of mankind. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Find out what you can concerning the Hague 
Conference. 

2. What governments are interested in a Pan- 
American conference? 

3. What is the advantage of having a photograph 
attached to a passport? 

4. Try to tell the difference l^etween an ambassador 
and a foreign minister. 

5. What is a ''boycott" ? Is it just? 

6. How are treaties arranged ? How ratified ? 

7. Define commerce ; imports ; exports ; passport ; 
diplomat; consul. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE ARMY AND NAVY 

Peace Assured. — The ordinary relations between 
the countries of the world are as peaceful as those 
between adjoining villages in our own country. 
It is desirable that nations should live in peace, 
should respect one another's rights, and should 
not give offense to one another. Peace brings 
happiness and prosperity. War means suffering, 
destruction, death. Our country is especially 
fortunate. We have no hostile neighbors who are 
seeking to attack us or who are jealous of our 
prosperity. The broad waters of the oceans, the 
Atlantic and the Pacific, protect our fair land from 
invasion. There is no other country in the world 
that nature has provided with a position so safe 
and well protected. 

Strength a Defense. — Yet it is necessary that 
we should have an army and a navy. Formerly, 
the army was used only for protection against the 
Indians, but at the present time the Indian tribes 

118 



THE ARMY AND NAVY 



119 



have been almost entirely subdued, so that a very 
small force is sufficient for this purpose. Every 
great nation in 
the world; how- 
ever, must main- 
tain its power, 
just as a man 
who may be per- 
fectly peaceful 
and without de- 
sire to injure his 
neighbors in any 
way will still keep 
his body in good 
condition, strong 
and well. If the 
nation desires to 
be safe at all 
times, it must 
keep strong, so 
that no one will 
be tempted to take advantage of it. 

The army of the United States need not be large, 
for should a war arise it could be rapidly in- 
creased. If our nation should be attacked, the 
entire people would arise as a man to defend their 




Battle Monument, West Point 



120 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



homes and their country. In peaceful times, there- 
fore, a large army is unnecessary. 

The Army. — The army of the United States at 
the present time numbers about seventy thousand 




Academic Building, West Point 

soldiers. The President is the commander-in- 
chief, but the officer at the head of the troops 
bears the title of lieutenant general. In order 
that an army may be efficient, its officers must 
receive complete and thorough military education 
and training. For this purpose the government 
maintains a military academy at West Point on 
the Hudson. The ground is historic, the location 



THE ARMY AND NAVY 12) 

is delightful, and the buildings and equipment 
provide for every need. Here young men selected 
for especial fitness, from all parts of the Union, 
are trained for four years in the art of war. Every 
congressional district is entitled to send one 
student to this academy, and each state has a 
right to an additional two. After a course of 
training extending over four years, the graduates 
of West Point are given a command in the army 
as lieutenants. The army itself is recruited from 
volunteers ; that is, no one is forced to serve in the 
army, but those who like the life of the soldier 
may enlist. They are then paid for their service. 
Militia. — In addition to the regular army of the 
United States there exists in each state a body 
of troops called the militia. These are citizen 
soldiers that do not make a business of army 
service. They are men from all walks of life who 
frequently come together for the purpose of 
practicing militaiy movements. In summer the 
militia assemble at a state camp, where they have 
special drills and manoeuvers. The militia is the 
best kind of a military force for a republic. It 
keeps alive the training of the soldier, and at the 
same time it does not constitute a force which 
can be used against the liberties of the people. 



122 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



The regular army should never be made so large 
that the entire people could be oppressed by it. 

The Navy. — The most important branch of 
national defense is the navy. The greatest battles 




The " Michigan " 
One of our 16,000 ton battleships 

in the future will probably be fought on the water. 
When a nation at war has lost its navy, its chances 
for victory are usually very small. For this 
reason the nations of the world are at the present 
time spending great sums of money for the building 
of powerful war ships. A war vessel is the most 
powerful product of national industry. It takes 
great talent and experience to handle such a ship, 
to manage its propelling engines and all the electric 
machineiy by which the gun towers are turned 



THE ARMY AND NAVY 123 

and hcsivy doors opened or shut. The largest 
guns on a man-of-war cany a missile weighing 
nearly one thousand pounds, which at a distance 




United States Naval Academy 
Courtesy of the American Architect 

of seven miles will go through a solid steel plate 
eighteen inches thick. You can imagine how 
quickly guns of this kind would reduce to a heap 
of ruins a city like Boston or San Francisco, or 
any city located near the sea. These war ships 
are very expensive. The larger among them cost 
from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000. The cost of one 



124 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

war ship would provide a state with a system of 
fine roads, and yet these magnificent machines 
may be crushed into a heap of scrap-iron in a 
minute by the action of torpedoes. It would 
seem that the tremendous cost of war alone will 
soon lead nations to find some other method of 
settling their difficulties. 

The Naval Academy. — It requires great skill 
and experience to command and control a modern 
battle ship. Those who manage its intricate ma- 
chineiy must be carefully trained. The govern- 
ment has therefore established a naval school at 
AnnapoliS; Maryland, where officers and midship- 
men are thoroughly educated and trained in 
everjrthing pertaining to naval warfare. Over 
$8,000;000 have recently been spent in j^erfect- 
ing its buildings and equipment. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is a large navy more important for us 
than a large army? 

2. What qualifications for admission are demanded 
of West Point cadets? 

3. When is war justifiable? 

4. Is military drill in schools advisable? 

5. Tell something of your state militia. 

6. What is the cost of a first-class battle ship ? 



THE ARMY AND NAVY 125 

7. How long would this money support the schools 
of your city or town ? 

8. Write a composition on the Naval Academy at 
Annapolis, telling how cadets are appointed, how 
many there are, what they must know to be admitted, 
what the course of study is, etc. 

9. Which is entitled to greater honor, a statesman 
like John Hay or a naval hero like Admiral Dewey ? 

10. Who is the cadet now at West Point from your 
district ? How, when, and by whom was he appointed ? 

11. Is there a company of militia in your town? 
Find out its name, the names of the officers, to what 
regiment it belongs, and other matters of interest con- 
cerning it. 

12. Name two important naval battles which have 
taken place within the last fifteen years. 

13. What nations were concerned in these battles, 
and which were victorious ? 

14. What foreign territory has been acquired by the 
United States as the result of recent wars ? 

15. What should the United States do with this 
territory ? 



CHAPTER XIX 

TAXATION 

The Expenses of Government. — In the preced- 
ing chapters we have seen the various ways in 
which the government acts in behalf of the people. 
We have seen how it defends and protects them 
against foreign attack and internal disorder. We 
have seen how it carries and distributes the mails, 
how it provides for education, how it develops the 
natural wealth of the country in forests and agri- 
cultural lands. For most of these advantages 
the people benefited do not pay directly. The 
government practically provides them freely in 
order to advance the general interest. All these 
things, however, cost a great deal of money, and 
hence the expenses of government are very great. 
This money is raised by taxation of one kind or 
another, and comes indirectly from all the people. 

Oppressive Taxation. — In early times taxation 
could hardly be distinguished from robbery. We 
have already seen how dependent the peasant of 

126 



TAXATION 127 

the valley was upon the lord of the castle. This 
lord took not only what the peasants could pro- 
duce, but he would also prey upon the merchants 
who traveled through his territory. On the 
river Rhine, for instance, the lords of the castles 
would often stretch chains across the river and 
detain merchant vessels until they had paid an 
exaction or tax to the lord, who had really done 
nothing whatever for them. It is different in a 
modern civilized community. There the tax is a 
payment for service rendered by the government 
in protection, education, the development of 
resources, and the administration of law. 

Fees. — We must distinguish between a fee 
and a tax. When a specific payment is made for 
a service by the government, it is called a fee. 
For a passport one pays a fee of $1. For 
having a letter registered, the writer pays a fee 
of ten cents. For having a warrant of arrest 
issued or a summons in a civil action, one also pays 
a definite fee, fixed by the laws of the state. But 
most of the services performed by the state are 
not paid for directly in this manner but by gen- 
eral taxation. 

Indirect Taxation. — The federal government 
gets its revenue from indirect taxation. Such 



128 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

taxes are not originally paid by the person upon 
whom they finally fall. The greatest source of 
revenue is in the import duties levied upon goods 
brought into our country from abroad. Suppose 
a merchant imports from Bohemia certain manu- 
factures of glass. When these goods are. brought 
into an American port, the government collects a 
certain duty upon them. This payment may be 
added to the selling price, and will thus ultimately 
be paid by the person who purchases the goods. 

Another source of federal revenue is found in 
the excise duties on luxuries like tobacco, liquor, 
and beer. This tax is originally paid by the man- 
ufacturer of the article, but he adds it to the price, 
so that ultimately the consumer has to pay it. 

Smuggling. — The government not only has to 
provide for the collection of these taxes, but it 
must protect itself against fraud. Some persons 
would like to import merchandise without pay- 
ing the lawful import tax. The government must 
therefore patrol the coasts of our country with 
revenue cutters to prevent smuggling. When 
people coming from abroad enter a port like New 
York, their baggage will be examined by custom 
officers to ascertain whether it contains any goods 
upon which a tax should be paid. It is not 



TAXATION 129 

pleasant to have one's baggage turned upside 
down and inside out by a stranger. Yet in some 
way the government must collect its duties and 
protect itself against imposition. 




United States Custom House, Seattle 

Forms of Taxation. — The money needed by 
state and local governments for rendering service 
to the public is collected through various forms of 
taxation. There is a tax on land and buildings 
from which the largest amount of revenue is ob- 
tained. There is a general property tax paid upon 
all property not of the nature of real estate. 
This tax does not bring in a large amount, because 
people usually do not pay upon all the property 



130 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

they really possess. Some even go so far as de- 
liberately to conceal from the state what property 
they have. This is dishonest, and in no way better 
than cheating a private person. 

In some states there are taxes on property which 
one gives away by will. When a person dies, 
leaving property, the state collects a certain per- 
centage of it for its own use. If the property goes 
to the widow or the children of the deceased person, 
the percentage collected is usually smaller than 
when it goes to distant relatives. Of course, when 
there are no relatives at all to take the property, 
it will fall to the state. 

States and cities also derive revenue from license 
fees collected from saloon keepers, peddlers, and 
others. In some districts a poll tax or head tax 
is levied. This is quite usual in country districts, 
where such a tax may be worked off in road build- 
ing or other public work. 

Direct Taxes. — You will see that most of the 
taxes collected by the states and local units are 
direct, that is, they are paid directly by the person 
taxed. In direct taxes one is always sure of the 
amount he is paying, while he can never have this 
certainty in the matter of indirect taxes. When- 
ever one buys cloth, or chinaware, or jewelry, 



TAXATION 131 

the price may include a larger or smaller import 
duty ])aid to the federal government. It would be 
difficult or impossible to determine the amount. 
But there can be no doubt about the amount of 
money paid in taxes for a house and lot which 
one owns. That amount is definite. For this 
reason it has often been said that it is better for 
a free nation to have as much as possible of its 
taxation direct. In that case the citizens know 
exactly what the government costs them^ and they 
will attend more carefully to the expenditures. 
They will see to it that useless outlays are avoided. 
We see this result to-day in our own country. 
Everybody is willing to have the federal govern- 
ment spend money in large amounts, because no 
one knows how much he contributes toward this 
expense. We are far more saving in our city and 
state governments, because in these cases the 
amount of our tax is definitely known, and each 
citizen is aware of what the government costs him. 
Cost of Government. — The expenses of the 
government have increased very much in recent 
years. Many of the activities of government 
which we have described are new. The develop- 
ment of forests, of agriculture, and of other im- 
provements incident to our growth all cost a great 



132 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



deal of money. These expenditures, of course, will 
bring to the nation an abundant return, but this 
return will not go to the government itself. It 




United States Treasury 

will go to individual citizens. The expenses of 
the national government have reached the 
enormous figure of $1,000,000,000 per year. 
It is almost impossible to imagine such a sum of 
money. The amount which the federal govern- 
ment spends every day, in silver dollars, would fill 
eight freight cars, while the annual expenditure 
would be carried in one hundred and eighty trains 
of sixteen cars each. 

The expenses of the state governments are, of 
course, much smaller. At the present time they 
amount to about $400,000,000 per year, while 



TAXATION 133 

our larger cities altogether spend around $1,000,- 
000,000. The military expenses of our nation are 
very great. We have recently spent in a single 
year as much as $155,000,000 for the army, 
$123,000,000 for the navy, and $160,000,000 
for pensions. For all this expenditure the 
nation receives no return in money. It, how- 
ever, obtains in this manner protection and 
defense from possible attack and from internal dis- 
order. The people of the nation should know 
what the government is expending. They have 
to pay the bill in the end, and they should control 
the expenditure through their representatives. 

City Taxes. — Naturally the taxes in a city 
will be much higher than those in the country. 
People living in cities must pay for the paving of 
streets in order that they may ride or drive in 
comfort. They pay for the service of policemen 
to watch over their safety day and night. They 
pay for the care of the parks where the children 
may play in summer and skate in winter. They 
pay for the district and high schools where the 
children get their education » They pay for the 
service of firemen to protect property. All these 
services add to the expenses of city government. 
If we live in the country, our taxes will be much 



134 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

lesS; because people in the country incur no 
expenses for police service, fire departments, or 
paved streets. Their roads they usually build and 
repair themselves. They are not afraid of crimi- 
nals, who chiefly gather in the cities, where there 
are more people to plunder. 

Assessment of Taxes. — The expenditure of 
public money is regulated by the town meeting in 
states where the people can get together for their 
own government. In other states, the revenue is 
expended by town officers, in villages by the vil- 
lage board, in cities by the city council. Every 
year certain sums of money are voted or appro- 
priated by these various bodies, which must be 
paid by us in the form of taxes. In the spring 
of every year an officer known as the assessor looks 
over all the property in the town or city. He de- 
termines the value of all real estate. He also puts 
a valuation on other property that we may have, 
called personal property. When he has made up 
his assessment roll, the taxes which the locality 
has to pay are apportioned among the citizens 
according to their property. The tax may amount 
to one per cent. In that case a house and lot as- 
sessed at $3000 will pay a tax of $30. If we are 
not satisfied, and think the assessor has put too 



TAXATION 135 

high a valuation on our property, we can go before 
certain pubhc officials and make complaint. If 
the assessment proves to be too large, the board 
will reduce it. When the day of payment comes, 
the assessed tax must be paid. The state is not 
a creditor that can be put off. If one should 
fail to pay the tax assessed upon his property, 
it would be sold at public auction by the sheriff, 
in order that the state might receive its tax. For 
this reason, people are more anxious to pay their 
taxes promptly than to meet any other obligation. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the rate of taxation in your town? 

2. What are the largest items of expenditure? 

3. Is there an inheritance tax in your state ? 

4. How is the tax on tobacco and cigars paid ? 
' 5. What is smuggling? What is its penalty? 

6. What articles should pay a heavy import duty ? 

7. What is a protective tariff ? Free trade ? 

8. What does your schooling cost the city or town 
each year? 

9. Is church and college property taxed in your 
state? Is this just? 

10. Should liquor selling be prohibited or licensed ? 
Why? 

11. Should a wealthy man who has no children be 
obHged to pay towards the support of schools ? Why ? 



CHAPTER XX 

LEGISLATION 

The Making of Laws. — We have considered the 
many activities of the state, the manner in which 
it acts in behalf of the people, and in which it 
provides itself with funds for its expenses. We 
have seen hundreds of thousands of officials at work 
in their various departments looking after the 
interests of the people and advancing the welfare 
of the country. There must be somewhere a body 
of men who will make rules according to which all 
these officials act and according to which the 
citizens are protected and have their interests 
guarded by the government . In the state the body 
which makes these rules is the legislature, and 
in the nation it is Congress. In smaller divisions 
rules are made by the county boards, city councils, 
village boards, and town meetings. But in the 
state all such councils and boards are subordinate 
to the state legislature, which can prescribe rules 
of action even to these bodies. 

136 



LEGISLATION 137 

Civil and Criminal Laws. — The legislature of 
the state frames the general rules by which the 
citizens must regulate their conduct. This is 
called the civil and criminal law of the state. Our 
moral sense tells us that we must not do bodily 
injuiy to another person nor take from him what 
rightfully is his own. Upon this moral sense the 
legislature bases the law which protects life and 
l)roperty and punishes crimes connnitted against 
citizens. These laws also lay down general rules 
for business transactions and the holding and 
transfer of property. Thus, it is law that if one 
write his name on the back of a note or check 
issued by another person, he may have to pay 
that note or check if the original maker proves 
imable to meet it. It is a law that when I agree 
in writing to purchase $1(),()00 worth of lumber, 
I must carry out my promise. All these and 
many similar rules deal with the conduct of pri- 
vate citizens in respect to their general affairs. 

Rules for Officials. — The second kind of rules 
made l)y the legislature deals with the action of 
government officials, prescribing regulations ac- 
cording to which they must do their work. Thus, 
the laws will instruct the Secretary of State how 
he is to issue certificates of incorporation. They 



138 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

will provide on what conditions insurance com- 
panies will be permitted to do business in a state. 
They will instruct the game wardens and the 
foresters as to their duties. The legislature also 
has control over all the expenditures of the state. 
No official is permitted to pay out any state money 
if the legislature has not previously given its con- 
sent to such expenditure. As the legislature is 
elected directly by the people, we see how all 
officials are under the control of the electors. If 
the citizens will only interest themselves in po- 
litical matters and have a definite purpose, they 
will be able to impress their desires upon the 
government of the country. 

Power of Congress. — The Congress of the United 
States has no control over the ordinary rules de- 
termining the conduct of citizens. The laws of 
contract, of property, of crime, are made by the 
state legislatures and not by Congress. The 
national body deals with the work of federal gov- 
ernment and with such matters as are provided 
for in the Constitution of the United States. As 
the constitution has given Congress the right to 
control commerce between the states, the com- 
mercial operations of the country have, as a matter 
of fact, to a large extent come under the super- 



LEGISLATION 139 

vision of Congress. Recently Congress has passed 
the railway rate act. Under this law the Inter- 
state Commerce Commission is empowered to 
determine whether any given rate charged by a 
railway company is excessive or not. The com- 
mission is also given other powers designed to 
protect the public against injurious action by 
railway companies. 

Pure Food Laws. — Another law of great 
importance secures the purity of foods. The 
health of the people is of great importance to the 
welfare of the nation. If what is sold for food or 
drink is of an injurious character, and not what 
it is claimed to be, the health of the people is 
endangered. Every one who sells food ought to be 
responsible for its purity. Under the law men- 
tioned above, manufacturers w^ho use harmful 
substances in foods which they produce will be 
punished. 

The foregoing are a few examples of laws made 
by Congress. Most of the acts of Congress deal 
with the established services of the departments 
of the government, with the land system of the 
United States, forests, irrigation, and public 
buildings. Congress appropriates all the money 
expended by the federal government. 



140 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

How a Law is Made. — It is very interesting 
to observe the work of a legislative body. The 
legislature represents the different parties exist- 
ing among the people of the state or nation. 
These parties discuss questions of public interest, 
and their members struggle to secure influence 
and power. When a member of the legislature 
desires to have a new law passed, he frames a 
bill; that is, he writes out what he proposes in 
the form of a law. This bill he introduces on 
the floor of the House. The speaker of the 
House will then send it to a committee. It is 
impossible for the House itself to go over all the 
bills which are proposed by members. They 
must first be examined and sifted by one of the 
many committees into which the House is divided. 
Thus, if the bill calls for an appropriation of 
money, it will be referred to the committee on 
finance. If it provides for the establishment of a 
normal school, it will go to the committee on 
education. If it calls for a new form of ballot, 
it will be sent to the committee on elections. 
These are a few examples. There are from 
twenty-five to fifty committees in the houses of 
the legislatures of the various states. 

Any citizen who has an interest in any matter 



LEGISLATION 141 

of legislation may appear before the proper com- 
mittee to urge his opinions. The proposed bill 
may affect his business, or it may provide for 
some improvement he desires, or it may be a 
reform in political methods in which he believes. 
Whether he favors or opposes the measure, he 
has a right to express his opinions before the 
committee. The hearings of the committee are 
public, and they are definitely announced before- 
hand, so that citizens who are interested can be 
present. Persons who make it a business to 
secure legislation for others, who pay them for 
their efforts, are called lobbyists. If they simply 
argue openly before committees, there is nothing 
wrong about their work, but if they tiy secretly 
to influence legislators, their action is illegal. In 
most states lobbyists are obliged by law to regis- 
ter their name and that of their employer. 

If the committee finds that it w^ould be desir- 
able to pass a certain bill, it will report this bill 
to the House with its recommendation. The bill 
is then put to a vote; those favoring it will say 
"Aye,'^ those against it, ^'No.'^ If a majority of 
the members present vote for the bill, it is passed. 
In some states a majority of all the members 
belonging to the House must vote favorably in 



142 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

order to pass a measure. When the bill is thus 
passed in one branch, it will be sent to the other 
— each legislature having two branches. There 
it goes through the same process. If it is passed 
by the second branch, it will be sent to the gov- 
ernor for his approval, and thus becomes a law. 

Veto Power. — The governor has the right to 
veto a bill if he considers it undesirable. Veto 
is a Latin word meaning ^^ I forbid.'' Sometimes 
the legislature may have overlooked some defect 
in the law, or the members may have become 
excited and passed a measure that in the light 
of reason seems dangerous to the state, or the 
legislature may have gone beyond the powers 
given to it by the constitution. In these cases 
the governor will usually exercise his power of 
veto. This veto does not necessarily defeat the 
bill. It goes back to the legislature. If this 
body passes it again, with an enlarged majority, — 
two thirds in most states, — the bill becomes a 
law notwithstanding the governor's veto. The 
legislature need not accept the opinion of the 
governor on the character of the law. In such a 
case the people will judge between the legisla- 
ture and the governor, and uphold whichever in 
their opinion takes the right view of the case. 



LEGISLATION 143 

The Initiative and Referendum. — The consti- 
tutions of many states at the present time provide 
that, when a large number of * voters desire to 
have a certain law enacted, they may bring it be- 
fore the people of the state by an initiative petition. 
When this has been done, a vote will be had on the 
proposed law at the next regular election. Should 
a law passed by the legislature appear to a large 
number of voters unwise and undesirable, they 
may petition for its reference to the electorate 
(referendum). When such a petition has been 
signed by the required number of voters, the law 
to which it refers will not go into operation before 
it has been voted on by the general electorate. 
This method makes it possible for the people of a 
state to keep a very direct control over legislation, 
and themselves to make the laws which they desire 
to have enacted, when the legislature does not 
readily respond to the determined will of the 
people. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe a legislative body in session. 

2. What is a game warden? A veto? A civil law? 
Interstate commerce? A lobby? A lobbyist? 

3. Show the value of the pure food law; of a law 
to enforce contracts; of the veto power. 



GREAT SEALS OF THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIE.^ 




< ClcM Soil of Ccorgii. rmmylruiit. > 



Copyright 1914 by G. & C. Merriam Co. 
From Webster's New International Dictionary, by permission of the 
Publishers, G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Mass. 



PART III 

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE GOVERN- 
MENT 



GREAT SEALS OF THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES 




Copyright 1914 by G. & C Merriam Co. 
From Webster's New International Dictionary, by permission of the 
Publishers, G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Mass. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE TOWN AND VILLAGE 

Local Government. — As we know most about 
the needs of our own neighborhood, it is natural 
that we should pay most attention to these and 
manage them ourselves as much as possible. We 
should know about the affairs of the state and 
nation, but management of them we must in- 
trust to representatives and officials. The affairs 
of our town, village, or city, however, are so close 
to us, and we are so directly responsible for them, 
that it is our special duty and privilege to see 
that they are well administered. 

The Town-meeting. — In some of our states, — 
New England, New York, Michigan, and Wiscon- 
sin, — the people living in country districts are 
governed by the town-meeting. In New England 
the town is a small settlement, often dating back 
to the very beginning of our history. To the 
tpwn belong the adjoining lands, and its boundaries 
are the irregular lines inclosing them, the whole 

147 



148 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



territory forming a township. In other states 
the townships are more artificiaL They are often 





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L rMFiWi 








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ill 






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LxDKl'KXDKXCt: IIall 

The Declaration of Independence was signed here. 

square areas determined by the calculations of 
surveyors, who went through our newer states 
and laid them out into counties and towns. In 
some of these newer states also the towns have 
their town-meetings. At least one town-meeting 
is held each year, in addition to which extra 
meetings may be held. At these meetings each 
citizen of the town has a right to be present, 



THE TOWN AND VILLAfiE 140 

speak, and vote. If he has a proper sense of his 
own interests and duties, he will not fail to be 
present on these occasions. The town-meeting 
elects the town officers, and passes regulations 
called by-laws,^ 

Township Government. — Tn the townships of 
the states in which no town-meetings are held, 
the work of the town is done entirely by elected 
officers. The general business of the town is 
managed by the selectmen, trustees, or super- 
visors. Of the latter there is usually only one to 
each town, but in New England towns there 
are from three to nine selectmen. These officers 
control and carry out the general administration 
of public affairs in the town, though where a town- 
meeting exists, they are subject to its orders. 
They fix the rate of taxation, vote money for 
expenses, and control the other officials, such as 
the clerk, the treasurer, the assessor, the col- 
lector of taxes, the constable, the justice of the 
peace, the overseers of the poor, and the sur- 



1 1( 



Town" comes from the Anglo-Saxon ''tun," referring 
to the fence or paHsade built about towns in ancient times 
for protection. By is the Norse word for town. A by-law, 
therefore, means a town law. England, as you remember, 
was settled both by Anglo-Saxons and by Norsemen. 



150 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

veyors of highways. The duties of these various 
officials are indicated by their title. The clerk 
keeps the books of the town, the records of 
town- meeting; he issues notices and frames the 
various written instruments necessaiy in town 
government. The treasurer has charge of the 
town funds. The assessor determines the value 
of property in the town for the purposes of 
taxation. The constable is the peace officer who 
has the power of making arrests and serving 
warrants. By holding offices of this kind, the 
citizens learn the public business of the town, 
so that it is an advantage both to themselves and 
to the state that they should render this service. 
In doing so they are fulfilling a public duty. 

Village Government. — As the town settlement 
increases in population, the village comes into 
being. Farmers of the neighborhood who have 
been successful retire and build themselves 
houses in the village. New stores are opened, 
warehouses and lumber yards and even factories 
may be added, so that the village presents an 
aspect of far greater business activity than does 
a countiy settlement. The people living in a 
village, therefore, find it necessary to exercise 
powers which are not required in the case of a 



THE TOWN AND VILLAGE 151 

town. They need special regulations concerning 
streets, sidewalks, fire, water supply, sewerage, and 
other matters. The state will, therefore, grant to 
villages a charter under which these extended 
powers may he exercised hy the citizens of the 
village. In general, the government is similar to 
that of a town, but the powers are greater, and 
the designation of the officials is different. At 
the head of the village is the president. The l)y- 
laws of the village are made by the ])oard of 
trustees, which also supervises the public busi- 
ness, levies taxes, and appropriates money for 
public expenses. Generally a village is a part 
of a town, so that the citizens of the village 
also have the right to vote for town officers. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Do you live in a town where there are town 
meetings ? What are the powers of the town meeting ? 

2. What are the officials of your town or village ? 

3. What are the duties of a supervisor or trustee? 

4. What is the duty of the town clerk? Who has 
charge of the highways? 

5. What advantages has a town over a city? 

6. Define town; village; charter; assessor; justice 
of the peace. 



CHAPTER XXII 

THE CITY 

What is a City? — As more and more people 
settle in the village^ it gradually grows into a 
city. It is important that we should understand 
all that is meant by the word " city." It is not 
merely a large number of houses located near 
each other^ an area covered with streets and 
buildings^ or a mass of people. It means more 
than all this. A city has a life of its own, a 
character which is developed 1)}^ the experience 
of time like the character of an individual person. 

In the ancient world, when Greece and Rome 
were powerful, the city was even more important 
than it is to-day. At that time there was noth- 
ing above the city. It was the highest political 
unit. Consider for a moment the appearance of 
an ancient city. On a high hill were seen the 
shining walls and the gleaming roofs of temples 
and public halls. Standing among them were 
giant statues of marble, ivory, or gold represent- 

152 



THE CITY 



153 



ing the gods to whom the city was faithful. Upon 
the top of the chffs that formed the sides of the 
citadel ran massive w^alls of masonry protecting 




Modern Athens 

the temples. On the lower slopes of the hill 
there were amphitheaters, more temples, public 
markets, and the dwellings of the citizens. All 
about the city was constructed another strong 
wall for the purpose of defense. Beyond this 
there lay the fields tilled by the citizens and their 
dependents. This city was to the people of the 



154 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

age their home, church, country, their everything. 
If they had to leave it they were strangers, with- 
out peace or rest. Only in their own city were 
they free men. They loved their city with a 
personal love. The picture of its walls and 
temples impressed itself so clearly upon the mind 
that all its outlines could be recalled at any 
time! As you know the appearance of your 
home, so the ancient citizen carried with him the 
picture of his city wherever he went. These 
cities were governed by the citizens in public meet- 
ings. They would not acknowledge any political 
superior. 

Italian Cities. — Should we travel in Italy to- 
day, we should see many cities which remind us 
of these ancient cities, and which, in fact, are in 
many respects like them. Each Italian city — 
Florence, Venice, Milan, Rome, Naples — has its 
own character, different from that of any other. 
The style of its buildings, the appearance of its 
inhabitants, show these differences. These cities 
are proud of the fine and dignified appearance of 
their public buildings, their squares and streets. 
We shall see, by thinking of these matters, that 
the cities have been the places where in the past 
our civilization has developed and has had its 



THE CITY 



bb 



centers. It is there that freedom was born be- 
cause, under the protection of the city waUs, the 
citizens felt a sense of freedom and equahty 




Venice 

which the unprotected man in the country could 
not feel. 

American Cities. — Our American cities are not 
so picturesque nor do they have as much indi- 
vidual character as have these older cities of which 
we have spoken, but they, too, are more than 
mere crowds of people. It is remarkable how 
fast our cities have grown. In the year 1800 



156 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

tliere was not one city in America which had 
one hundred thousand inhabitants. At that time 
our population hved in country districts; and 
was occupied largely in farming, but during the 
last century great manufactures were built up 
and the business of the country was centered in 
a number of large cities. Factory operatives, 
laborers, domestic servants, merchants, teachers, 
men of capital, came to live in larger and larger 
numbers in the cities, so that to-day one third 
of our population is found in cities of over ten 
thousand inhabitants. 

Cosmopolitan Cities. — Our American cities are 
also notable because of the many people of 
foreign birth who live in them and make their 
population greatly diverse. A country district is 
usually settled by Americans or by people of 
some one nationality, - - English, German, Scan- 
dinavian, Polish, or some other European nation. 
In the cities all these elements are placed side 
by side. It is said that New York contains more 
Germans than any other city except Berlin, more 
Jews than any other city in the world, and 
more Irish than Dublin. In one school in New 
York twenty-seven languages are spoken. Our 
country has been hospitable in inviting all 



THE CITY 157 

European peoples to our shores. For this reason 
our population has grown very fast. It is not 
surprising that many of these innnigrants stay 
in the large cities, where work may easily be 
secured and land is hard to obtain. This fact 
makes the government of our large cities very 
difficult. A city should be like a large family 
of people thinking and feeling alike, knowing 
and trusting one another. The various races 
in our cities have not lived together long enough 
to become thoroughly acquainted. It takes some 
time to learn the nature of free institutions and 
to be able to take an intelligent part in their 
working. So we may say that the cities are the 
great laboratories where all the elements which 
come to us from foreign countries are melted 
and made over into our American nationality. 
It will be seen from this that the government of 
an American city is more difficult than that of a 
European city where the people all speak the 
same language. 

Cities Beautified. — The city ought to be made 
a dignified and beautiful home for its inhabitants. 
By the cities our civilization will be judged. If 
they are corrupt, if their streets and buildings 
are unattractive, we have much still to do. But 



158 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



they need not be other than beautiful and well 
governed if the people will only discharge their 
duties as citizens. Many of our American cities. 




Washington Monument, Richmond, Va. 



indeed, may be looked upon already as models of 
what a city should be. They have clean, well- 
paved streets lined with grateful shade trees; 
public squares, flanked with impressive buildings; 
libraries, museums, city halls, and schools of ample 
size and artistic design. They honor their dis- 



TITR CITY 159 

tinguished citizens by monuments erected to them 
in appropriate places. While all such improve- 
ments as these are expensive, they are an excel- 
lent investment, because they make every citizen 
happier and his property more valuable. 

A city should have a grateful memory for the 
achievements of the past. From time to time 
there should be festivals and pageants in which 
the history of the city is celebrated. Think of 
the stoiy which is made by the history of a city 
like Boston, from the Puritan days, through the 
period of the great orators and reformers like 
Adams and Webster down to the present, with 
all its great business activity. If all these dif- 
ferent experiences were expressed in a historical 
procession, or in a great historical play, what 
a glorious celebration it would be, and how it 
would increase the respect of citizens for the 
dignity of city life. 

City Charter. — The government of the city is 
carried on under a charter, a grant of powers 
made by the legislature. The city is a larger 
town or village, with a greater population and 
a greater variety of activities. It needs greater 
powers of government and a more complicated 
organization than a village. 



IGO CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

The Mayor of the City. — At the head of the 
city government stands the mayor, lie has the 
power of appointing certain officials, of watching 
over the execution of laws, of suggesting new 
ordinances to the city council. He generally has 
the right to veto ordinances passed by that body. 
The executive work of the city is carried out by 
numerous officials and boards which are grouped 
in various city departments. The arrangement 
and designation of these vaiy in different parts 
of the country. There will be city treasurers, 
auditors, boards for the management of streets, 
parks, the police, the water supply, and the 
school system. If we live in a city, we ought 
to know the various departments of the city 
government and their business. We could then 
see how successfully each one is carrying on its 
w^ork. 

The City Council. — The ordinances or laws of 
the city are made l:)y the council. This city legis- 
lature may be composed of one or two bodies. 
Most commonly it has only one body. The city 
fathers or legislators are usually called aldermen. 
Their powers of legislation are granted in the 
charter. The council may make certain rules 
with respect to the use of the streets and of the 



TFIE CITY 161 

parks, as well as regulations controlling the work 
of the city officials. It also deals with the in- 
come and expenses of the city. The income is 
derived from taxes on property, from rentals and 
fees for public services such as the water supply, 
and from the return from franchises granted to 
l)ublic service corporations. The city may bor- 
row money f(3r the purpose of constructing public 
buildings and works of various kinds, but the 
amount of indebtedness which a city can incur is 
limited by law. This precaution is taken in order 
that the council may not run into debt recklessly. 
Generally the debt of a city is not allowed to 
exceed five per cent, or at most ten })er cent, of 
the entire assessed valuation of the property in 
the city. 

The Commission Plan. — In recent years, a 
large number of cities have adopted a new plan 
of government called the commission system. 
In many cases the city councils have not gov- 
erned well, as they were often ignorant and allowed 
themselves to be guided by corrupt influences. 
Under the new plan the powers of city government 
are exercised by a small commission chosen by the 
voters of the entire city. Each member of the 
commission is in charge of one of the departments, 



162 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

such as police, public works, and so on. To- 
gether, they form a board which makes ordinances 
and transacts the general business of the city. 
This plan was first tried at Galveston, in Texas, 
after that town had been devastated by a flood. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the names of the departments of your city 
government, and describe their work. 

2. What important officials are appointed by the 
mayor of your city? 

3. How is the work of street cleaning organized? 

4. How large a debt does your city have? 

5. What has been done towards beautifying your 
city or town? 

6. Attend a meeting of the aldermen or council 
and report its proceedings to your classmates. 

7. Give some suggestions for improving the appear- 
ance of your city or town. 

8. How would you spend $500 about or within 
your schoolhouse to make it more attractive? 

9. Why do so many foreign immigrants settle in 
our cities? 

10. How does an immigrant become a voter? 

11. Define city. 

12. Name five of the largest cities in your state. 

13. Who is the mayor of your city? 

14. What powers has the mayor? 

15. What powers and duties has the city council? 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE COUNTY 

What is a County ? — The county is a district or 
division of government which exists in all states 
of the Union, with the exception of Louisiana^ 
where the district or local government is called 
a parish. Where the town is very active, as in 
New England, the county is far less important. 
In the Southern states and in the Far West, how- 
ever, where town government does not exist, the 
county performs all the work of local adminis- 
tration. The county is a division of the state 
created for the purpose of carrying on certain 
public business. 

County Government. — The county is governed 
l)y a board of county commissioners or super- 
visors. The county commissioners are usually 
chosen for the entire county, while the board of 
supervisors is made up of representatives from 
each town and each ward in a city or villa.^o. 
Consequently, a board of supervisoi's is mucli 

1G3 



1G4 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

larger than a board of county commissioners. 
Whatever the system may be in a given county, 
the powers of the board are similar. It appor- 
tions the state tax among the various towns, 
villages, and cities in the county, equalizing the 
tax assessments when any inequalities exist. It 
usually provides for the care of the poor, and 
has charge of the poorhouses and county farms. 
The construction and care of courthouses, prisons, 
and other public buildings also devolve upon 
this body. It may also exercise supervision over 
the system of roads and over pubhc education in 
the county. 

County Officers. — The usual county officers 
are the clerk, the treasurer, the register of deeds, 
the county school superintendent, the sheriff, and 
the district attorney or state's attorney. All 
these officials are elected by the voters of the 
county. The register of deeds keeps a record of 
all landed property in the county. Whenever a 
piece of land is sold or mortgaged, the deed or 
mortgage is recorded by the register. In this 
way the transfer of the property is made public, 
and the purchaser is assured of getting a good 
title to the land bought by him. Should there 
be any mortgage on the land, or should any sale 



THE COUNTY 165 

have been previously made, the record at the 
courthouse plainly shows the fact. The sheriff 
is an important official whose duty it is to secure 
the enforcement of law and the maintenance of 
order throughout the county. He has the power 
of making arrests, and he is also the custodian of 
the persons who are confined in the county jail. 

QUESTIONS 

1 . How large is the county board in your county ? 

2. Does your county have a county farm, and how 
is it managed ? 

3. How large is the governing body of your county, 
and how is it designated ? 

4. Name the officers of your county. 

5. What buildings belong to it, and where are they 
located ? 

6. Is every state divided into counties ? What is 
a parish ? 

7. What are the duties of the county commissioners 
or supervisors ? 

8. Name the county seat of your county. Why 
chosen and when ? 

9. Name the largest county in your state ; the 
smallest ; the richest ; the poorest. 

10. If you bought a farm in your county, where and 
to what county officer would you go to have your title 
recorded ? 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE STATE GOVERNMENT 

Importance of State Government. — When the 
United States government was founded, there 
existed only thirteen states, but these states had 
in their possession a large tract of territory ex- 
tending to the Mississippi River which had not 
yet been settled. As -the settlement extended 
into these new lands and as the population there 
grew, new states were formed and admitted into 
the Union. It w^as not long before this original 
territoiy had thus been settled and formed into 
states. This same line of action continued when 
we had acquired our Far Western territory. 

The government of the state is very important 
to our general welfare. President Garfield once 
described it in the following language : — 

"The state government touches the citizen and his 
interests twenty times where the national government 
touches him once. For the peace of our streets and tlie 
health of our cities; for the administration of justice in 

166 



THE STATE GOVERNMENT 167 

nearly all that relates to the security of person and 
property, and the punishment of crime; for the edu- 
cation of our children, and the care of unfortunate and 
dependent citizens; for the collection and assessment 
of much the larger portion of our direct taxes, and for 
the proper expenditure of the same, — for all this, and 
much more, we depend upon the honesty and wisdom 
of our General Assembly and not upon the Congress at 
Washington." 

State Insignia. — Each state has an individu- 
ality of its own. It not only has its name, but 
also its seal and its coat of arms. A coat of 
arms originally was the covering which a knight 
wore over his armor and upon which was em- 
broidered a shield. Upon this there were repre- 
sented various objects supposed to be connected 
with the character and history of the family of 
the knight. This coat of arms was inherited by 
son from father. Though armed and plumed 
knights have long passed away, coats of arms are 
still used to indicate somewhat the character of a 
family or a state. In selecting the coats of arms 
of our states, our forefathers tried to express 
their hopes and aspirations. They placed upon 
them not the fierce lions and tigers which abounded 
on the coats of arms of the ancient warriors. 
Our designs are usually in every way peaceful. 



168 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

The plough, the anvil, the locomotive, the steam- 
ship, and other means of promoting the well- 
being of mankind have taken the place of swords 
and beasts of prey. These coats of arms are 
found in the center of the great seal of the state. 
Some of the states have a separate state flag or 
banner, or they may have selected certain flowers 
to represent them. Nearly all the states have 
a motto. Among the people, humorous designa- 
tions are often given to states and their inhab- 
itants, such as buckeye, badger, gopher, hoosier, 
etc. (See pp. 144, 146.) 

Equality of States. — In law all the states of 
the Union, large and small, are equal, and can- 
not be interfered with by another state or by the 
federal government, but in actual size they vary 
greatly. Texas is almost five times as large as 
Illinois, and IlHnois again is forty times as large 
as Rhode Island. 

The Constitution of the State. — The govern- 
ment of the state is carried on under the state 
constitution. Usually the constitution is drawn 
up by a convention, and is then submitted to the 
voters of the state. In earlier years the con- 
ventions also adopted the constitution, but at 
present the people are always given an oppor- 



THE STATE GOVERNMENT 169 

tunity to express thfir will upon the adoption of 
so important an instrument. The constitution 
may be changed in parts and in detail by amend- 
ments. These amendments ai'e proposed by the 
state legislature and are then submitted to the 
people to be voted upon at a regular election. 
The constitution contams the general framework 
of government. It enumerates the departments 
of government and distributes the powers among 
them. It also forbids the exercise of certain 
powers. It regulates the right of voting, and 
determines what shall be necessary in order that 
men may hold office. The constitution also pro- 
tects the individual citizens by prohibiting un- 
lawful arrests, searches, and imprisonments; pre- 
scribing trial by juiy; establishing freedom of 
religion; and, in general, building a strong waW 
around the rights of the individual. This part of 
the constitution is called the Bill or Declaration 
of Rights. 

The Governor. — The work of the state is 
carried on in the counties by the officials and 
boards which we have already considered. The 
central government of the state is composed of 
the governor, the executive officers, the legisla- 
ture, and the state courts. The governor repre- 



170 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

sents the unity of state government. He may 
appoint certain officials, usually with the consent 
of the Senate, in the case of important appoint- 
ments. At present, in some states, appointments 
are made not as a matter of political favor, but 
on the basis of civil service examinations. All 
candidates for a certain office have the riglit to 
be examined, and appointment must be made 
from those who stand highest on the list and 
have passed the test with the greatest credit to 
themselves. 

The governor is also the commander of the 
state militia. He controls its movements. Should 
great disorders or rioting arise in any part of the 
state, he may call out the militia to restore order. 
The governor usually has the power to pardon 
persons who have been sentenced to prison or to 
other forms of punishment. When a sentence 
has once been passed by a court, it has no power 
to discharge the accused. It is sometimes dis- 
covered, however, after the trial, that a prisoner 
is really innocent of the crime of which he was 
convicted. If his innocence is clearly established, 
or if he has reformed, the governor may pardon 
him. This great power should, however, not be 
used to allow prisoners to escape just punishment. 



THE STATE GOVERNxMENT 171 

Perhaps the most important function of the 
governor is the preparation of a message which 
he sends to the legislature or reads before it in 
person. In this message he recommends such 
changes in the law as may seem necessary to him. 
If he is a man of power and wisdom, he will be 
able greatly to influence the action of the legis- 
lature. When an act has been passed by the 
legislature, it must be submitted to the governor, 
who has the right either to approve it or to veto 
it. In case it is vetoed, it may still become a 
law if the legislature passes it again. In most 
states, however, the act must be re-passed in such 
a case by a vote larger than a simple majority. 

Executive Officers. — The executive work of 
the state is carried on by various officials. The 
most important of these are the secretaiy of 
state, the treasurer, the attorney-general, the 
superintendent of education, and the auditor. 
The secretary of state keeps the record of all the 
laws and important public acts of state govern- 
ment. He has in his custody the great seal of 
the state, which must be affixed to the original 
copy of every law. 

Commissions. — A great part of the business 
of the state is carried on through boards or com- 



172 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

missions. These boards are usually composed of 
several men who are appointed on account of 
their special knowledge of the subject where- 
with they deal. Thus, we have commissions of 
health, of charities and correction, of corporations, 
of taxation, of railways, of public utilities, and of 
labor. Some of these commissions simply make 
inquiries and gather information. Thus, it is 
important that the officials and citizens of the 
state should know about the methods of assess- 
ment in all parts of the commonwealth. The 
tax commission may devote its energies for a 
time entirely to studying this question. It may 
then make certain recommendations that the 
laws and the methods of doing public business 
be changed. Often these boards or commissions 
have the right to make rules and regulations 
which officials and citizens must observe, or they 
may hear and decide cases arising among citizens. 
The public service or railway commissions some- 
times have the power to determine whether the 
charges made by public corporations for their 
services are just and reasonable. 

State Legislatures. — The legislature of the 
state consists of two houses: the smaller house 
is called the Senate, the larger, the House of 



THE STATE GOVERNMENT 173 

Representatives. In some states the latter is 
called the House of Delegates or the Assembly. 
The senators are elected from districts which are 
larger, and their term of office is usually longer 
than that of the representatives. The House of 
Representatives is sometimes three times as large 
as the Senate. While the senators are ordinarily 
elected for four years, the representatives are 
elected for two years only. Of course, every state 
has its own system in these matters, so that we 
are here simply stating the arrangements which 
have been made in most of the states. 

The presiding officer in the House of Represent- 
atives is called the speaker. The Senate is pre- 
sided over either by the lieutenant governor or 
one of the senators who acts as president. In 
both houses the detailed work is carried on in 
committees. These are called standing committees 
when they are regularly appointed at each session, 
and select or special committees when they are ap- 
pointed for a short time and for a special pur- 
pose. The most important standing committees 
are those dealing with revenue and expenditure, 
with education, with banking, with railroads, with 
elections, with manufactures, and with agriculture. 
Every bill which is introduced must be referred 



174 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

to a committee, and unless the committee makes 
a favorable report on it, it is not likely that the 
bill will become a law. The speaker has the 
power of appointing committees and of main- 
taining order in the House. Any member who 
desires to address the House must first catch 
the eye of the speaker and obtain recognition from 
him. 

In most states the legislature meets eveiy two 
years, but there are six commonwealths which 
have annual sessions, and in a few the legisla- 
ture meets only eveiy four years. The length of 
the session is limited by law in most states. It is 
believed to be wise for the legislature to work 
with a will and to finish up its business in as 
short a time as possible. Should any important 
matter come up after the legislature has ad- 
journed, the governor may call an extra session. 

State Courts: The work of the state courts 
deals with the ordinary personal and property 
rights of citizens as well as with criminal acts 
committed against the state itself. Whenever 
only the rights of a private individual are dealt 
with, we speak of a '' civil '' action; a '' criminal " 
action takes place when an offense has been com- 
mitted that is serious enough to affect public 



THE STATE GOVERNMENT 175 

peace and security in general. In such cases 
we say that the act has been committed against 
the peace of the state or commonwealth. The 
manner of dealing with these various kinds of 
cases has already been described above. State 
courts are dividend into the following classes: 
Justice courts for the trial of cases of small im- 
portance ; probate courts for the proving of wills, 
the administration of estates, and the guardian- 
ship of minor children; courts of ^general civil 
and criminal jurisdiction; and courts of appeal, 
or supreme courts, to which cases are brought 
when the decision of a lower court is objected to. 
The judges of state courts are usually elected by 
popular vote, or appointed by the Governor; it 
is important that good and experienced judges 
should be kept in service as long as possible. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the design of the great seal of your state ? 

2. Does your state have a flag, a motto, a state 
flower ? 

3. How is the Railway or Public Utilities Commis- 
sion in your state composed, and what are its powers? 

4. Read the Declaration of Rights in your state 
constitution, and see how it protects personal rights 
against interference. 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 

The National Capital. — Our national capital is 
one of the most beautiful cities in the world. 
The site upon which it stands was selected by 
Washington Rimself . He was fond of this region, 
because near by is situated his own estate of 
Mount Vernon. Before a single building was 
constructed, a skilled engineer drew up a com- 
plete plan for the city, showing all the streets, 
avenues, and parks which were to be created. 

The Capitol. — The city really has two centers, 
if such a thing is possible. On an eminence in 
the eastern part of the city stands the Capitol, 
surmounted by its majestic dome. You have so 
often seen a picture of this noble building that 
you have perhaps ceased to care for it. But 
look at it again and see how beautiful it is. Its 
vast size does not surprise you, but all its parts 
are so constructed that they are in perfect har- 
mony with each other. It is not the size of a 

176 



THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 



177 



building which makes its beauty, but perfect 
proportions, — that is, the relation of its parts, 
and its lines to one another, so that the effect will 
be entirely har- 
monious. But 
while its lines 
make the building 
beautiful, its size 
makes it impress- 
ive. Where the 
two go together, a 
very powerful im- 
pression is pro- 
duced. So with 
the vast stairway 
sweeping up to- 
wards the build- 
ing, with its marble 
wings extended on 
either side, and the perfectly fashioned dome 
crowning the entire structure, it may be said 
there is no building in the world more fit to rep- 
resent national strength and permanence than 
the Capitol in Washington. It is surrounded by 
other magnificent structures, the Congressional 
Library, the Supreme Court building, and the 




The Washington Monument, 
Washington, D.C. 



178 CIVIL GOVERNMElSrr 

office buildings for Congress. In arranging such 
great structures it is always necessary to leave 
sufficient space around them in order that they 
may not be crowded and that they may not 
detract from one another. 

The White House. — Pennsylvania Avenue 
leads westward from the Capitol. It is a broad 
street, the principal thoroughfare of Washington. 
It leads up to the White House, the official home 
of the President, a simple building surrounded by 
beautiful park-like gardens. The White House 
is flanked on either side by the large buildings 
occupied by the Treasury and the departments 
of state, the Navy, and War. In front of the 
White House is Lafayette Square, a place of 
great historical interest. In its center is a statue 
of Andrew Jackson, the soldier President. The 
square itself is surrounded by houses in which 
have lived such men as James Madison, Daniel 
Webster, Charles Sumner, John Hay, Admiral 
Decatur, and others famous in our history. 

Arlington. — When we visit Washington, there 
are two places which we should not fail to see. 
One of these is Arlington, situated about six 
miles from the city, south of the Potomac River. 
It is the old home of General Lee, the principal 



THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 



179 




180 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 



military leader of the Confederates. The temple- 
like house stands on a high eminence, from which 
the city of Washington is seen with all its beau- 




Arlington Mansion 



tiful buildings and monuments. But Arlington 
has a still greater interest. It is a soldiers' cem- 
etery. Here are buried thousands upon thou- 
sands of the brave soldiers who fell during the 
Civil War. As we look to the right and to 
the left of the mansion, we see thousands of 
little white headstones, each inscribed with the 
name of one of these men. Among them are 
larger monuments erected to generals and other 



THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 



181 



high officers. Wa shall leave this })lacc with a 
deep impression of the beauty of our national 
capital, and of the great sacrifices which have 
been made. 




Mount Vernon 



Mount Vernon. — The other place is Washing- 
ton's home, Mount Vernon, which lies about ten 
miles below Arlington on the Potomac River. 
The place has changed very little since Washing- 
ton lived there. We are transported over one 
hundred years back to the veiy beginning of our 
national life. The simplicity and dignity of the 
surroundings help us to understand the character 
of the first President, lie himself is buried 



182 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

near his home, adjoining the gardens, where 
flowers are still blossoming as on the day of his 
death. Mount Vernon is, indeed, a national 
sanctuary where from the memories of the past 
we may get inspiration for the future. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where was the first capital of the United States 
located ? When removed, and where is its present 
location ? 

2. Name six of the most noted government buildings 
in Washington. 

3. Why are Arlington and Mount Vernon famous ? 

4. Find out all you can about the Washington 
Monument — when built, what it commemorates, etc. 

5. What is the District of Columbia ? 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE PRESIDENT 

Importance of the Office. — The President of the 
United States is an official whose power is greater 
than that of a king. He is intrusted with this 
power in behalf of the people, and as the Ameri- 
can nation grows stronger its President becomes 
more powerful and important in the world. 
Yet he is not surrounded by any royal splendor 
or show of office. The earliest Presidents were 
simple in their manner of living, and the early 
traditions have been maintained. Though the 
Presidents no longer ride on horseback to their 
inauguration as Jefferson did, their mode of life 
is still very simple, and they avoid every unneces- 
sary display of power and wealth. 

The President's Daily Work. —The White 
House itself is a dignified but simple residence 
for the head of a nation. The business office of 
the President is a small one-story building ad- 
joining the White House and connected with 

183 



184 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

it by a covered walk. The private office of the 
President and the cabinet room, the two rooms 
in which the most important interests of our 
nation are discussed and determined, are together 
no larger than an ordinaiy class room. 

A visit to the President is most interesting. 
When he receives visitors, the anteroom to the 
office is crowded with persons passing in and 
out. There are senators and representatives de- 
sirous of presenting some friend or some office- 
seeker. There are diplomats bringing distin- 
guished visitors from other countries. There are 
delegations of representative citizens from various 
parts of the country, who wish to urge upon the 
President some needed reform. In the short time 
at his disposal the President meets all these peo- 
ple, listens to their wishes, and has a few cordial 
words for each one of his visitors. Many people, 
of course, desire to see the President out of mere 
curiosity. Formerly the President held a general 
reception several times a week, to which any one 
might come just for the purpose of shaking hands 
with him. The time of the great magistrate is 
so valuable that no one should call upon him, 
unless for some definite and necessary purpose. 

The person of the President is protected at all 



THE PRESIDENT 185 

times by special policemen and secret service 
agents. Men whose character is not known will 
not be admitted to his presence at all; because 
there is reason to fear that some lunatic or crimi- 
nal might desire to make a murderous attack 
upon the President, of the kind t(j which Garfield 
and McKinley fell victims. 

The work of the President requires ability of 
the highest order. He has to carry the most im- 
portant matters in his mind and make decisions 
every day upon which the welfare of numberless 
people depend. He must be a man of strong 
character, who will not be swayed by influence, 
but who will set before him the one purpose of 
serving the nation and the people. Pie must be 
able to say ''No." It is desirable that he should 
be a man of experience in public affairs, one whose 
character can be judged by what he has done in 
other positions. President Garfield had been a 
congressman and senator for many years. Presi- 
dents Cleveland, McKinley, and Roosevelt had 
been governors of great states. President Plarri- 
son had been a senator. All these men were 
conspicuous and well known by the American 
people, before they became Presidents. 

The work of the President is arduous. From 



186 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

early morning until late at night, the business of 
his responsible office weighs on his mind. Thou- 
sands of letters come to the White House urging 
upon the President action of one kind or another. 
All the departments of government have to be 
watched by him, and he is in a measure respon- 
sible for the legislation which passes through Con- 
gress, and which ultimately is submitted to him 
for his approval. So the President finds little 
leisure and rest. The responsibilities of his great 
office will be a strain on the strongest man. Few 
Presidents have lived long after their term of 
office has expired. 

The Election of President. — The election of 
the President is carried on in a roundabout man- 
ner. The Constitution provides that at the 
time of the Presidential election each state shall 
choose a number of electors equal to its joint 
representation in the Senate and the House of 
Representatives. Some time after the election, 
the electors that have been chosen meet in the 
capital of the state and cast their votes for some 
man for the office of President of the United 
States. They also elect a Vice-President in a 
similar manner. These votes are then sent to 
Washington and counted in the presence of the 



THE PRESIDENT 187 

Senate and House of Representatives. All these 
forms are observed at the present time, but as a 
matter of fact we know who has been chosen as 
soon as the November election day is over. The 
men who are nominated as Presidential electors 
on our party tickets have been pledged before- 
hand to vote for a certain candidate. They will 
not, therefore, vote for any one else. We know 
that they will vote for Mr. Taft or Mr. Bryan, Mr. 
Roosevelt or Mr. Parker. It has, therefore, been 
suggested that it would be better to abolish the 
electoral college altogether and have the people 
vote directly for the President and Vice-Presi- 
dent. To do this it would be necessary to amend 
the Constitution. 

Inauguration of President. — The President is 
introduced into the office, or inaugurated, on the 
4th of March following upon his election. This 
is a very imposing ceremony. First comes the 
inauguration of the Vice-President, which takes 
place in the Senate chamber. There are gathered 
the outgoing and the incoming President and Vice- 
President, the justices of the Supreme Court, the 
senators and representatives, the foreign diplo- 
mats, and many distinguished visitors. The Vice- 
President makes a brief address, and then is 



188 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

sworn into office. Thereupon, the entire com- 
pany will pass outside of the Capitol to a huge 
platform or grand stand which has been erected 
in front of the Capitol. There a vast multitude of 
people is already awaiting the President-elect. 
After he has arrived and all is quiet, the Chief 
Justice of the United States administers to him 
the oath of office, and he gives his inaugural ad- 
dress. After this has been finished, the Presi- 
dent, together with his predecessor, drives up 
Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House, where 
they review a grand military procession arranged 
in honor of the occasion. Regular troops and 
militia from all parts of the Union, governors 
with their staffs, and marines from the navy take 
part in this display, which usually lasts for several 
hours. 

The President's Power. — The President has 
the general power of overseeing the work of the 
various executive departments of the government. 
It is his duty to see that the laws are faithfully 
executed. To this end he must not only instruct 
the officials and issue regulations to them; but, 
should the laws be opposed in any locality, it is 
his right and duty to enforce them, if necessary, 
through the military power of the nation. 



THE PRESIDENT 189 

Appointing Officers. — The President has the 
right to appoint many important officers of the 
federal government. The less important officials 
are appointed by the heads of the departments. 
The President appoints cabinet ministers, heads 
of departments, post-masters in cities, and diplo- 
matic officials. Such appointments must be sub- 
mitted to the Senate, and that body must confirm 
them before they become valid. It is, therefore, 
a common practice for the President to consult the 
Senate before he nominates any person for a very 
important office. 

Making Treaties. - — The President has authority 
to negotiate treaties and to receive foreign minis- 
ters and ambassadors. He thus has a great in- 
fluence upon our relations with foreign countries. 
It often depends upon him whether this country 
shall sustain friendly relations with other nations 
or whether it shall incur the danger of war. He is 
also the commander of the army and navy. He 
appoints and promotes the officers, and controls 
the movements, of ships and troops. It is by 
order of the President that the fleet makes long 
trips into foreign waters. By his order, too, the 
army may be concentrated or stationed at this 
or that place. 



190 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

President's Messages. — The President has the 
right to address Congress on legislation and to 
urge upon the national legislators such changes in 
the laws as he may consider wise. For this end, 
he writes an annual message as well as special 
messages. It is not intended that the President 
should take a further personal part in legislation. 
When he has called the attention of Congress 
to certain needs, it is for that body to consider 
the manner in which they may be met. 

Veto Power. — When an act has been passed, 
as is the case in the States, it must be submitted 
to the President, who has the right to veto it. 
If a bill is sent to the President during the last 
ten days of a session, he need not return it to 
Congress with his signature or veto. If he does 
not sign it, the act fails and does not become a 
law. This is called the pocket veto. Acts sent to 
the President before this time must either be 
vetoed or signed by him and returned to Congress. 
That body has the right to pass a bill over the 
President's veto if two thirds of the members are 
in favor of doing so. 

Presidential Succession. — In case of the death 
or disability of the President, the Vice-President 
becomes President. If the latter dies or becomes 



THE PRESIDENT 191 

disabled, the law provides that the Secretary of 
State shall act as President. Should he die, some 
one of the other secretaries of dei)artments will 
discharge the duties of the office, the order being 
prescribed by law. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What other countries are republics ? 

2. How many Presidents has the United States had? 
Which of them died in office ? 

3. What offices had the last three Presidents held ? 

4. Compare present inaugural ceremonies with 
those in Washington's and Jefferson's time. 

5. Which Presidents have held prominent military 
offices ? 

6. Which of them started as poor boys ? 

7. What is the electoral college ? 

8. Tell how a President is elected. 

9. Describe the inauguration of a President. 

10. What appointive powers has the President ? 

11. What are the purposes of the messages sent to 
Congress by the President ? Find a copy of one and 
discuss it briefly. 

12. Describe the veto power of the President. 

13. Who may become President in case of his death 
or disabiUty ? 

14. Name two instances when this has been neces- 
sary. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE CABINET 

Heads of Departments. — In the work of ad- 
ministering the affairs of the nation, the President 
is assisted by the cabinet. This council is com- 
posed of the heads of the great executive depart- 
ments. These officials are appointed by the 
President and are responsible to him. Should he 
be dissatisfied with their action, he may call upon 
them to resign. We have already considered the 
work which is performed by some of these de- 
partments, but it will be well to rehearse them 
in this place, as they are so important. 

Secretary of State. — The Secretary of State 
administers the foreign affairs of the nation. He 
controls the actions of our diplomatic representa- 
tives abroad as well as of the consular officials. 
It is also his duty to preserve important state 
documents and the original copies of the laws, 
to which the great seal of the United States 
is affixed. In the library of this department we 

192 



THE CABINET 193 

may see such precious documents as the original 
copy of the Declaration of Independence and of 
the Constitution of the United States. 

The Secretary of the Treasury. — The Secretary 
of the Treasury administers the financial depart- 
ment of the government. He oversees the col- 
lection of revenues and the payment of them to 
the various departments which are to expend 
them. The Life Saving Service is under his 
direction. 

The Secretary of War. — The Secretary of War 
is in charge of our military establishment. The 
action and movements of our troops and provi- 
sion for their maintenance are under his care. In 
this department there is also the Bureau of In- 
sular Affairs, where the business of our outlying 
territories, such as the Philippine Islands, Porto 
Rico, and the Panama Canal Zone, are looked 
after. 

The Attorney-General. — The Attorney-General 
is the legal adviser of the government. Whenever 
an important action is to be taken, his counsel is 
invoked by the President or other high officials. 
He also represents the government in great law- 
suits, and superintends the action of all the federal 
district-attorneys throughout the nation. 



194 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

The Postmaster-General. — The Postmaster- 
General has charge of the business of the post 
offices of the country, of making contracts for the 
transportation and delivery of the mails, and of 
appointing the postmasters in the smaller towns 
and in the rural districts. 

The Secretary of the Navy. — The Secretary of 
the Navy has control of all naval affairs. The 
construction and movements of battleships, the 
direction of the Naval Academy, the control of 
navy-yards, are some of the important matters 
that come under his authority. 

The Secretary of the Interior. — Under the 
charge of the Secretary of the Interior are such 
interests as the public lands, the affairs of the 
Indian tribes, the Geological Survey, the Bureau 
of Education, and the Pension Office. The pres- 
ervation of our natural resources in lands, forests, 
and mines comes especially under the charge of 
this department, which gives it great importance 
in promoting the welfare of the people. 

The Secretary of Agriculture. — The work of 
the Secretary of Agriculture consists in superin- 
tending all the agencies through which the national 
government is attempting to help the farmers in 
making their work more profitable. A large num- 



THE CABINET 195 

ber of scientific experts are employed in seeking 
for improvements in agriculture. 

The Secretary of Commerce. — The Department 
of Commerce includes the divisions of the census, 
of navigation, of fisheries, and of the coast survey. 
The Bureau of Corporations finds out about the 
management of the great industries of our country 
and how closely they observe the national laws. 

The Secretary of Labor. — His department deals 
with matters relating to labor and immigration. 
The Bureau of Immigration sees that the laws 
which govern the treatment of immigrants, and 
which exclude from our country people who are 
diseased, or paupers, or criminals, are enforced. 

Civil Service. — In these various departments 
over three hundred thousand oflficials and clerks 
are employed. With the exception of the highest 
positions, which are filled by presidential appoint- 
ment, these offices are filled through civil service 
examinations. Several times during the year 
examinations for the various branches of the ser- 
vice are held in our large cities. Any person may 
be admitted to these tests. The candidate must 
answer certain questions submitted to him, which 
test his general education and his special fitness 
for the work required. A good high-school edu- 



196 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

cation, with some special study in the particulai 
branches, should fit any one to pass the examina- 
tions for clerkships. Those who have passed with 
credit are placed on a list which is sent to the head 
of the department that has the appointing power. 
He must make his selection from the highest names 
on this list. It is very desirable that people should 
be appointed to office on account of their ability 
to do the work required and not for political 
reasons. If they prove lazy or incompetent, they 
can be dismissed by the head of the department, 
but any new appointment must be made from 
those who have passed the examination. This 
system is the only one under which the affairs 
of government can be managed in a businesslike 
way. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Send to the Civil Service Commission at Wash- 
ington or to the Commission in your state, if there is 
one, for samples of the questions that are put to 
candidates for government clerkships. See what sub- 
jects you would have to study in order to pass a civil 
service examination. 

2. Name the present members of the cabinet, and 
ascertain what public positions they held before being 
appointed to their present position. 



THE CABINET 197 

3. Should there be a federal department of educa- 
tion ? What could such a department do ? 

4. What are some of the advantages of the civil 
service method of selecting public officers ? 

5. Name the departments of the cabinet in the 
order of their importance and value to the country. 

6. By whom are the cabinet members appointed ? 

7. Are the members always chosen from the same 
political party which the President represents ? Is this 
right ? 

8. Why is the Life Saving Service under the con- 
trol of the Secretary of the Treasury ? 

9. Why should the Secretary of War have charge 
of the Philippines and the Panama Canal Zone ? What 
is this zone, and how acquired ? 

10. What postmasters are appointed by the Post- 
master-General ? Who appoints the others ? 

11. Would you like a government position? Why? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE CONGRESS 

Congress. — The Congress of the United States 
is composed of the Senate and the House of Rep- 
resentatives. When we speak of a congressman, 
we refer to a member of the House. A member 
of the Senate is always spoken of as a senator. 

Senators. — In the Senate of the United States 
each state, no matter how large or small, has two 
representatives. Rhode Island and Texas are on 
a perfect equality in the Senate. The Senate, 
therefore, is not a very large body. There are less 
than one hundred senators, and they come to 
know each other very well. Senators are elected 
for a term of six years, but as they are frequently 
reelected it has happened that senators have held 
their office for as long as twenty or thirty years. 
Senators were formerly elected by the state legis- 
latures. But the 17th Amendment, adopted in 
1913, provides that they are to be elected directly 
by the voters in the states. This will tend to make 
the Senate more directly subject to public control. 

198 



THE CONGRESS 199 

Congressmen. — The members of tlie House of 
Representatives are elected directly l)y the people. 
Each state is divided into congressional districts 
according to its population. New York, the 
largest state, has thirty-seven districts, the 
smallest states have only one. At the present 
time the House of Representatives has three hun- 
dred and ninety members. The representatives 
hold office for two years only, but are also fre- 
quently reelected. The House being a much 
larger body than the Senate, its members do not 
become so well acquainted with one another. 
The members who have held ofhce longest acquire 
great influence. 

The Speaker. — One of the congressmen is 
elected Speaker, or presiding officer, of the House. 
He is the acknowledged leader of the majority 
party in the House, and as such wields a very 
great influence in determining what legislation 
shall be taken up and how much time shall be 
given to each measure. No member is permitted 
to speak unless he is recognized by the Speaker, 
and as the Speaker cannot recognize all who desire 
to speak, it follows that he has the power to select 
the men whom he will permit to be heard on the 
floor of the House. A member of the House can, 



200 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

therefore, accomplish very Httle if the Speaker is 
opposed to him. Members of long service in the 
House will be made chairmen of the important 
committees. The Speaker will consult with these 
men upon legislation. In this way the policy of 
the House is determined. 

The Vice-President. — The Senate is presided 
over by the Vice-President of the United States. 
He is not a member of the Senate, and has no 
vote unless the senators are equally divided in 
opinion in which case his vote decides the ques- 
tion. While in the House the members are 
strictly limited in the time given to them for 
speaking, a senator may speak as long and as 
often as he desires on any measure before the 
Senate. It has happened that senators have 
talked so long against a certain bill that the 
session ended before the bill could be passed. 
This is called " talking a bill to death.'' 

Bills. — As in the state legislatures, every bill 
which is introduced must be referred to a commit- 
tee. It cannot be acted upon until the committee 
has reported. Many thousands of bills are never 
reported upon, but, as we say, they die in the 
committee room or they are put to sleep there. 
Any citizen has the right to appear before a com- 



THE CONGRESS 201 

mittee in order to express his opinion on proposed 
legislation. 

All bills for the purpose of raising revenue, that 
is, for imposing or changing taxes, must first be 
introduced in the House. The Senate may amend 
such bills when they come to it, so that it also 
exercises a great power over the revenues. The 
Senate has also the right to give or refuse its con- 
sent to any treaty which the President has negoti- 
ated with a foreign country. Thus, it comes about 
that the Senate exerts a great influence over our 
foreign affairs. Without the approval of the 
Senate it is impossible for the President to make a 
treaty or to appoint certain diplomatic officials. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the appearance of the Senate chamber, 
or of the hall of the House of Representatives. 

2. Name six prominent senators and six members 
of the House. 

3. Why do the members of the House submit to 
the power of the Speaker? 

4. Who is the member of Congress for the district 
in which you live? What was his business before his 
election ? 

5. Does it seem just that Texas or New York 
should have no more senators than Rhode Island or 
Delaware ? 



202 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

6. How many members has the Senate now ? The 
House of Representatives ? 

7. Are the territories represented in Congress ? 

8. What do we mean by an allowance for mileage ? 
By the franking privilege ? 

9. How and for how long is a senator elected ? 

10. In case of the death of a senator, how is his 
successor chosen ? 

11. How many congressional districts in your state? 
Why? 

12. What changes were made in the rules committee 
during the House session of 1910 ? Why ? 

13. When does a treaty negotiated by the President 
become a law ? 

14. When can the President of the Senate vote ? 

15. Why should all bills for the raising of revenue 
originate in the House ? What power has the Senate 
regarding such bills ? 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THE FEDERAL COURTS 

Powers of the Courts. — The courts of the 
federal government are of great dignity and 
authority. The entire government is carried on 
under the Constitution, but the courts have the 
power to decide as to the meaning of any con- 
stitutional provision. Congress has the right to 
legislate, but its action must be limited by the 
powers granted in the Constitution. If it goes 
beyond these powers in the opinion of the Su- 
preme Court, the court will declare its action 
unconstitutional. A decision of this kind would 
render the act void, because whatever law the 
courts do not aj^prove has no validity. 

District and Circuit Courts. — The lowest fed- 
eral court is the district court. There is one such 
tribunal in every state, and the larger states have 
two or more. Since the abolishment of the circuit 
court by the Judiciary Act, which took effect Jan- 
uary, 1913, cases can be taken from the district 
court to the circuit court of appeals. There are 
nine such courts in the United States. The circuit 

203 



204 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

court of appeals is composed of three judges, who 
may be either circuit or district judges. There 
must, however, be at least one circuit judge in the 
court. The official who carries out the decrees 
and judgments of a federal court is called the 
marshal. In the state courts, this duty is per- 
formed by the sheriff. 

The Supreme Court. — Any case involving the 
question whether a law or an official act is valid 
under the Constitution may be taken to the Su- 
preme Court of the United States. This is also 
true in certain criminal cases involving life and 
liberty. The Supreme Court is composed of nine 
justices who are lawyers of great ability. The 
court is a body of impressive dignity. When it 
is in session, the judges wear judicial gow^ns, 
which add to their aspect of gravity. The ablest 
attorneys from all parts of the nation appear be- 
fore this court to argue cases. 

Jurisdiction. ^ The federal courts hear cases 
which arise under the federal Constitution or 
under the laws passed by Congress. The ordinary 
criminal cases are tried in the courts of the state. 
If a person should sell liquor to Indians, or should 
steal timber from a federal forest reserve, he 
would be tried before a federal court. Ordinaiy 



THE FEDERAL COURTS 205 

lawsuits between citizens also come up before the 
state courts. But if we are suing a citizen of 
another state, we may bring our action either in 
a court of his state or in a federal court. In such 
cases the federal courts are usually appealed to. 
Federal courts also hear all cases relating to navi- 
gation on the large rivers, lakes, and the sea. 

Appointment of Judges. —The judges in all 
the federal courts are appointed by the President 
with the consent of the Senate. They are not 
appointed for a definite term, but during good be- 
havior. This means that they hold office for life, 
unless they should be guilty of some crime or mis- 
demeanor. In that case they may be deprived of 
their office, after being impeached by the House 
and found guilty by the Senate. Other high 
officials, including the President, may be im- 
peached and tried in a similar manner. Only one 
President has been impeached, and he was not 
found guilty by the Senate. To pronounce a judge 
or official guilty, the votes of at least two thirds 
of the senators are required. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Is it better that judges should be elected for a 
limited time, or appointed for Ufe? 



206 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

2. For what crimes could a marshal make arrests ? 

3. Name the present justices of the Supreme Court. 
Did they hold judicial office before coming to their 
present positions ? 

4. What should be the character and attainments 
of a Supreme Court Justice ? 

5. What powers has the Supreme Court ? 

6. Why is it necessary to have such a body ? 

7. Name one law passed by Congress which the 
Supreme Court has declared unconstitutional. 

8. What are district and circuit courts ? 

9. In what court would a postmaster accused of 
embezzling government money be tried ? Why ? 

10. If you were injured in another state and brought 
suit to recover damages, where and in what courts 
could the case be tried ? 



CHAPTER XXX 

INTERNATIONAL UNIONS 

Although our state and nation are very powerful, 
they necessarily have relations with other countries. 
No nation is entirely self-sufficient. They must 
all cooperate in order that the greatest advantages 
of civilization may be secured. Thus, nations 
help one another in gaining important informa- 
tion, in protecting one another against epidemics, 
in forwarding one another's mail, and in making 
it possible to have commercial intercourse. For 
these various purposes international unions have 
been created, of many of which the United States 
is a member. 

The Hague Court. — The most important inter- 
national organization is The Hague Court of Ar- 
bitration. Should a controversy arise between 
nations, the danger always exists that war may 
follow, but war is a most costly and cruel method 
of settling international differences. In most 
cases it is entirely unnecessary. It is far better 

207 



208 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

that the matter in dispute should be investigated 
by an impartial court and decided according to its 
judgment. 

The international court was created in 1899. 
It holds its sessions at The Hague in Holland. It 
is composed of representatives of all the nations, 
and any two nations having a dispute may submit 
it to this tribunal for arbitration. Many treaties 
have been made between nations in order to make 
this possible. We may well be encouraged by the 
progress of arbitration. The number of general 
arbitration treaties was only two in 1903, in 1905 
it had risen to forty-eight, and by 1906, to sixt3^ 
At such a rate is reason being substituted for 
force. 

The Postal Union. — Another important organ- 
ization is the Universal Postal Union, to which 
practically all nations in the world belong. Under 
the regulations made by this union the mails are 
transmitted between different countries. Other 
unions are the Sanitary Union, which protects 
nations against epidemics; the Agricultural Insti- 
tute, which develops the interests of agriculture; 
the Patent and Copyright Unions, by which the 
property of writers and inventors is preserved; 
and the Union of Weights and Measures, which 



INTERNATIONAL UNIONS 209 

keeps the standards of measures which are used 
the world over. Our nation is further bound to- 
gether with other nations of the American hemi- 
sphere in the Pan-American Union, which exists for 
the purpose of promoting the interests of all 
America. Its work is done through the Bureau 
of American Repubhcs, which is located at 
Washington. 

Every international union has a central ofhce. 
Some of these are located in Switzerland, some 
in Belgium, some in other countries. This cen- 
tral bureau supplies all the governments wath 
information about the matters with which it 
deals. It also helps the various governments to 
do their business with one another. 

QUESTIONS 

1 . What are international unions ? Why necessary ? 
Naine six. 

2. Describe the Hague Court. 

3. What is the Postal Union ? What are tiic bene- 
fits derived from it ? 



PAET IV 

SOME AMERICAN IDEALS 



CHAPTER XXXI 

HOSPITALITY TO ALL PEOPLE 

The city of New York has one of the most 
beautiful harbors in the world. If we were to 
enter it on one of the big ocean steamers, we 
should see to our left the green, wooded hills of 
New Jersey, and the high forts of Governor's 
Island. To our right would stretch the level shore 
of Long Island, with its many towns, to which 
people resort in the summer. Ahead would rise 
the tall, tower-like buildings of the city of New 
York, which is connected with Brooklyn by the 
wonderful sweep of the high Brooklyn Bridge. 
But there, as we enter the harbor, on a small island 
arises the Statue of Liberty, enlightening the world. 
This is a tall figure of a woman holding in her hand 
high above her head a torch, which at night sheds 
light over the entire harbor. This great statue 
was presented to the people of the United States by 
our Sister Republic, France. It was placed here at 
the gateway of our country so that all who come 

213 



214 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

from other countries may realize that they are 
entering the land of freedom. 

Many thousand ships pass into this harbor every 
year. They carry in their holds great quantities 




Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor 

of goods which our merchants have purchased in 
other countries. They bring lace and silks from 
France, objects of art from Italy, clothing of 
various kinds from England and Germany, coffee 
from Brazil, rubber and gold from Africa. But 
they bring a more precious freight than all this. 
On these ships return to our shores the many 
thousands of our countrymen who have been trav- 
eling in foreign lands on business, to study, to 
learn the customs of other nations, or for health 



HOSPITALITY TO ALL PEOPLE 215 

or pleasure. With them come thousands and 
thousands of people who have never been in this 
country before. From all parts of the world they 
come, anxious to make their home in our rich 
country and to share with us the blessings of 
freedom and good government. Over a million im- 
migrants have come to our shores in a single year. 
Most of them come to New York, but other ports, 
like Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Charles- 
ton, New Orleans, San Francisco, and Seattle, 
are also doorways through which strangers enter ■ 
our land. In former years, they used to come 
mostly from England, Ireland, and Germany, but 
at present we get more people from other countries. 
In the last few years, most of our immigrants 
have come from Austria, Italy, and Russia, and at 
present Poles, Slavonians, Hungarians, Italians, 
and Russians are coming in large numbers. 

When these immigrants reach the harbor of New 
York, they are very happy that the long voyage is 
over. They may have had to travel many days by 
railway in Europe before they came to the port at 
which they took their ship. Then came the ocean 
voyage of ten days or two weeks, with nothing to 
look at but the sea and the sky. They had left 
home and dear ones behind. They came in order 



216 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

that they and their children might lead a happier 
and freer life in this country. In their old home, 
they may have had to work sixteen hours a day 
for wages too small to enable them to live in 



<^^^m^^^^^^^. 









High School for Girls, Philadelphia 

comfort. For years they saved every penny in 
order to be able to pay their passage to the new 
countiy, where men are free and equal. And now 
their hopes have at last been fulfilled and they 
have reached the end of their voyage. 

When they reach the port of New York, how- 
ever, they are not at once allowed to go on shore; 
they are not welcomed and taken care of by kind 
friends. All immigrants are taken to Ellis Island, 



HOSPITALITY TO ALL PEOPLE 217 

where the officials of the government inspect 
them. Though we welcome to our shores the 
people of all nations, nevertheless, our laws do 
not admit criminals, paupers, the insane, or those 
having contagious diseases. If such people were 
admitted, they might prove a menace to public 
health and a source of great expense for main- 
tenance. Hence these classes are excluded. All 
others, however, no matter how poor, who are 
able to look out for themselves and are willing to 
work, are gladly admitted. When they have been 
properly inspected, they take their big bundles of 
baggage and are transferred by steamer or ferry 
to a railway station, whence they can begin their 
journey to the place where they desire to live. 

Thus these people from other countries scatter 
all over our broad land, seeking to make them- 
selves new homes. Many will settle in the large 
cities like New York, Philadelphia, or Chicago. 
There they enter factories, or work for the street 
car companies, or dig trenches in the streets for 
gas and water mains. Others will find employ- 
ment with railway companies as section hands, or 
in building new railways, making embankments, 
and laying ties and tracks. Still others will go to 
the mines of Pennsylvania and dig underground for 



218 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

coal, or they may go to the iron mines of Michigan, 
or the gold and silver mines of the West. Those 
who bring a little more money will buy land for 
themselves in the country, will put buildings and 
stock on it, and start a farm. These will have the 
most independent life ; the others often have very 
hard work to do. In fact, the hardest work in our 
count ly is done mostly by new immigrants, and 
our great railways and mines would not have a 
sufficient force of laborers, if new workmen were 
not all the time coming to us from other countries. 

But all these millions of people who come to us 
from foreign lands soon become Americans; they 
learn our language and learn to love our govern- 
ment and institutions. If they work hard and 
are thrifty, they soon better their condition. They 
are able to have their own homes and to save a 
little money against sickness or old age. Their 
children will go to school, and will enjoy all the 
opportunities our country offers. As they be- 
come better educated, their life becomes more 
enjoyable, and many among them acquire wealth 
and influence. 

Our nation has always welcomed people from 
all the countries of the world, but especially from 
Europe, because the nations of Europe belong to 



HOSPITALITY TO ALL PEOPLE 219 

the same race as ourselves. Our nation is tlius 
composed of people of all the older nations, and 
all the good and noble qualities which they bring 
will enrich our national life. They represent an 
older civilization from which we have much to 
learn. They bring to our shores not only strength 
for manual labor^ but often a degree of skill or 
knowledge that may prove greatly helpful. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

LIBERTY 

If we look at one of our silver coins, the quarter- 
or half-dollar, we shall see on it the head of a 
woman. She wears a diadem, or head-band, on 
which is written the word " Liberty.^' On her 
head she wears a curious cap, which is called the 
cap of liberty. This has the same form as the 
cap which in old Rome a master gave to a slave 
whom he set free. It was the sign of freedom, 
and it has remained so till this day, although hap- 
pily there are no more slaves to be freed. We 
also often write the word '^ Liberty ^^ on our ban- 
ners and carve it in stone on our public buildings. 
All this shows what we think of it. When our 
forefathers had braved a harsh climate and re- 
pelled the savages, when they had made themselves 
homes in the American wilderness, when they had 
cleared the land around their villages and made 
the earth bear rich crops, when they had built 
towns and had made fleets of ships to sail on the 

220 



LIBERTY 221 

sea, then they felt that they wanted Hberty. Tliey 
wanted to manage their own affairs and not to 
be subject to a government across the ocean. 80 
they bravely fought the armies of England and 
suffered great hardships until they had finally 
won that liberty which they wanted and which 
was their right. 

That is one form of liberty, for a people to be 
free and independent of control by an outside 
government, which they do not elect. At that 
time our nation was still small, having fewer 
people than the one state of Ohio has at present. 
But our forefathers knew that we could become 
a great and powerful nation, if our people were 
allowed to govern themselves. So they risked their 
lives and their all to secure so desirable an end. 

Liberty, however, means more than freedom 
from foreign rule. It is not enough that no outside 
government should be able to control us. Suppose 
some man should gather an army about himself 
and should make himself so powerful that he could 
force us to do what he pleased. Even if he were 
an American, we should not be free if we had to 
obey him. This is what Napoleon did in France. 
He was a lieutenant in the army, and when there 
was an uprising of the people in Paris, he com- 



222 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

manded his gunners to fire their cannon into the 
crowd. This act restored order, but it also gave 
Napoleon the start in his struggle for power. He 
finally got control of the army, and his will was law 
in France. He even made war on the neighboring 
nations and conquered some of them. He desired 
to be the ruler of the world. That purpose he did 
not attain. Government by a Napoleon is not 
liberty. Liberty means that the nation is governed 
by the men whom it has freely elected. So our 
forefathers adopted the Constitution. In all the 
states, too, constitutions were made. These 
provide that the President and the governors and 
the legislatures shall be elected by the people. 
This is what we call political liberty. 

Some people think that if they live in a land of 
liberty they ought to be able to do exactly what 
they please, without being hindered by any one. 
Would it be liberty to throw stones at a neighbor's 
windows, or to use firearms in the main streets, 
or to drive an automobile so fast as to endanger 
life? No; liberty does not mean that we can do 
anything we please. If we are to live in peace and 
harmony with our fellow-citizens, we must respect 
their rights. Imagine for a minute what would 
happen if every one did as he liked. The com- 



LIBERTY 223 

munity would be at the mercy of the criminal 
classes. Not only would property be insecure, 
but life itself would be in danger. 13ut that 
would not be liberty — it would be anarchy. If 
there were no restraint, there would be no liberty. 
Bo we have laws which protect us from violence, 
and force us to respect the rights of others. To 
obey such laws is not to sacrifice freedom, because 
if people did not obey them, no one would be free. 
We do want to be free to do what we choose, as 
long as we do not injure any one else. We often 
hear people say, '^ This is a free country.^' That 
does not mean that we have no laws which every 
one must obey. It means that we have no unnec- 
essary laws. In some countries, people are not 
allowed to follow the business which they like. 
This is not liberty. In others, the police are al- 
ways watching people, opening their letters, and 
giving them orders. Neither is this liberty. 
Sometimes the government is overcaref ul to pro- 
tect people against their own carelessness. In oiu* 
country, we may walk on the railway tracks, or 
jump on a train when it is beginning to move, or 
ride a bicycle in crowded streets. We take the 
risk of injury ourselves. In some countries, these 
things are forbidden because they are dangerous. 



224 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

It is not difficult to do what the law demands. 
If we do not do things which injure others, we are 
free to go where we please and to follow our own 
wishes. We are truly free when we do what is 
right, because then we shall live happily and 
without fear. If we wrong others, or if we do 
that which is low and mean, we shall ourselves 
become low and mean, and our happiness will 
be at an end. So liberty, and good laws, and 
self-respect, and respect for the rights of other 
people are all one. We are free if all do what 
is right. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY 

It is impossible that all men should have the 
same amount of money and property, ^\'e cannot 
have such equality and do not want it. If a man 
has worked harder, or has learned his business or 
trade better, or does more for his fellow-men than 
others do, he also deserves better payment. But 
the equality which we believe in is that every man 
should have an equal chance to do all that his 
ability will let him do. Now in some countries, 
a boy must follow the trade of his father, even if 
he does not like it and can do something else 
better; or if he has no rich and powerful friends, 
a young man cannot get ahead in life. In our 
country, we do not ask who a young man's grand- 
father is, but who he is himself. We do not ask 
who is backing the young man, but what he has 
learned and what he can do. It is because every 
man has the whole world and every chance open 
before him that our count ly is so prosperous. A\ e 

225 



226 CIVIL GOVERNxMENT 

must see to it that this shall never be changed, 
for this is true equality. 

The example of many great men who began life 
as poor boys shows that in our country the high- 



^lYiMTij; 


IBIii IfUffl 11 1 


lyiiiil 


:Mi^-xani**'m 



Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 

est honors may come to a man, even if he has to 
start at the very bottom. Such honors, however, 
do not come to all. Not all of us, or most of us, 
attain to high honor as statesmen, or to great 
wealth, but we are all equal in that we have an 
equal chance to use our powers and abilities. We 
may also be equal in happiness, for wherever a 
man does his duty, whether he is a farm hand, or a 
sailor, or a banker, he leads an honorable life. If 
he tries to get what is not due him., if he is untrue, 
cruel, or afraid of work, he will have no honor, no 
matter how rich he may be. So in our country, 
though we cannot all be President, we can all do 
the work for which we are best fitted, and we shall 



EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY 227 

be judged by the way in which we do our duty. 
When we say that our country is the land of equal- 
ity, we mean this, that eveiy man may make the 
most of his talents. The great opportunities that 
are open before all of us should inspire us to great 
effort. 

It is because we believe in equality that we think 
so much of our schools. Unless all boys and girls 
can have at least a common school education, 
they do not get a fair start in life. Of course, 
there have been men who have done great things 
without ever going to school, but they were strong 
enough to give themselves the education which 
their parents could not give them. There is hardly 
anybody now who cannot attend school. If Gar- 
field's mother, a widow with five small children, 
could keep them at school, while she was manag- 
ing the farm, surely there are few parents who 
cannot give their children at least the rudiments 
of an education. Many states have a law that 
compels parents to send their children to school. 
Every true American believes in good schools. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

PATRIOTISM 

The love of country has at all times been a 
powerful motive among those races that have 
achieved most in the world. The love of the 
Athenian for his native city, the pride of the 
Roman in the great Empire of which he was a 
member, have been inherited and developed by the 
citizen of the modern state. We love our country 
because it is our own. It is the field within which 
the action of our lives takes place, and its popula- 
tion is made up not only of our friends and close 
acquaintances, but of all the other people who 
stand for the ideas and customs which we our- 
selves cherish. Our nation is made one by its 
common memory of the great struggles which it 
has gone through and the triumphs which it has 
achieved. The history of our country is full of 
glorious deeds and great achievements. We love 
to dwell on the contest which the early settlers 
waged in the wilderness against the forces of 

228 



PATRIOTISM 229 

nature and the hostility of the savages. We follow 
with interest the upbuilding of communities and 
states. The great struggle in which our countiy 
claimed and maintained its independence fills us 
with enthusiasm. We love to read the lives of 
the great leaders, from Winthrop and \\^ashington 
down to the statesmen of the present time, who 
have guided the nation in times of peace and of 
war. 

Our nation has a common language and litera- 
ture. Although many other languages are spoken, 
the one language is understood by all. Our nation 
has its own ideals of political life, which have 
already been set forth in these pages. We believe 
that the government should rest on public opin- 
ion, and that the will of every citizen should enter 
into the life of the state. We believe in peace and 
justice in international relations. In social life, 
too, our ideals are those of a new, rich, and hopeful 
countiy. We do not have classes of nobility or 
inherited privileges. It is our ideal that eveiy 
man should rely upon his own character and 
abilities, and that he should be given a free chance 
with every one else to show what he can do. His 
success in life should depend upon the extent to 
which he has made himself useful to his fellow-men. 



230 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

411 these things together make the ideal of 
American nationaUty. The behef in this ideal, and 
the desire to realize and maintain it, is true pa- 
triotism. We cannot be truly patriotic without 
knowing and understanding what our national 
life means and what our nation stands for. When 
we thoroughly understand these ideals and devote 
ourselves to them, we are patriots. Patriotism 
is not a thoughtless feeling. When we hang out 
our national flag in front of our home, or when we 
cheer the patriotic sentiments of a public speaker, 
we should know that it is not merely a flag or the 
outward excitement that makes patriotism, but 
the deep feeling of devotion and sacrifice which 
lies back of such outward expressions. 

One of the first things that occur to us when we 
speak of patriotism is the readiness to sacrifice 
our welfare and even our life when the needs of 
our country require. Bravery in war is the most 
striking expression of patriotism. We pay special 
honor to those who have shown great courage at 
times when their country was endangered by 
invasion or by war. History is full of shining ex- 
amples of men who have given up every thought 
of self and have laid down their lives cheerfully 
in order to save their country. A teacher will be 



PATRIOTISM 231 

happy to tell the story of Leonidas, of Manlius, 
or of Winkelried. Our own history, too, has many 
examples of personal bravery, ^^'c need on]y refer 
to John Paul Jones, Ethan Allen, and the steadfast 
courage of Washington. 

Patriotism is something positive and active,— 
a readiness to do something for our countiy. It 
does not express itself in a narrow-minded hostility 
to foreign people. It is not patriotic to think that 
all foreigners are inferior and that their countries 
are less advanced than ours. Such ideas only 
show ignorance. We are only one of the great na- 
tions, though we want to be and remain a great 
people. Our love for our own country should not 
express itself in enmity against others. A strong 
nation may well be friendly and just to other 
peoples, and protect the foreigners who have 
placed themselves under the care of its govern- 
ment. It would be a disgrace to our nation if 
foreigners were not protected as we ourselves 
expect to be when we find ourselves in foreign 
lands. 

Though braveiy in times of war excites our 
interest most, still a citizen has need of bravery 
also in the quiet years of peace. He must be brave 
to do his own thinking, brave to act according to 



232 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

his sense of justice. If he holds office, he must be 
brave enough to face reproach and enmity for the 
sake of doing right and to disoblige powerful 
friends who might desire to influence his action in 
their own interest. It may even be said that it 
requires a greater and more persistent courage to 
fulfil our duty to our state in times of peace than 
in times of war. The excitement of war carries the 
soldier, as it were, outside of himself. He is 
raised to a higher plane of courage and self-sac- 
rifice. But in the ordinary times of peace, men 
have no such powerful incentive for devotion to the 
welfare of their country. They are surrounded 
by men who' are striving for their own interest. 
Each one, therefore, must constantly set before 
him the great things which our country stands for, 
and which our government must accomplish for 
the people if our nation is to prosper in the future. 
To make our country safe and respected, a good 
home for ourselves and those that come after us, 
should be the desire of every patriotic citizen. A 
special duty is laid upon political leaders in our 
country. Here the people have a part in govern- 
ment. We aim at making the state the expression 
of the common life. It is not to exist for a favored 
few or for men in power and office-holders. 



PATRIOTISM 23.3 

Government is merely a service to the people of the 
nation. Ours is an experiment in popular <i;overn- 
ment, which is being watched by all other nations. 
In order that it may succeed, we should all of 
us understand the nature of the high objects our 
nation is striving for. Every day of our lives 
we should assist in attaining these objects, even 
if we have to sacrifice time and money and oppor- 
tunities. We should not begrudge our service, 
but should think it an honor and a privilege to 
assist in so great a work. 

The great orator and patriot, Fisher Ames, has 
said : — 

" What is patriotism ? Is it a narrow affection for 
the spot where a man was born? Are the very clods 
where we tread entitled to this ardent preference be- 
cause they are greener? No, sir, this is not the char- 
acter of the virtue, and it soars higher for its object. 
It is an extended self-love, mingling with all the enjoy- 
ments of life, and twisting itself with the minutest 
filaments of the heart. It is thus we obey the laws of 
society, because they are the laws of virtue. In then- 
authority we see, not the array of force and terror, 
but the venerable image of our country's honor. 
Every good citizen makes that honor his own, and 
cherishes it not only as precious, but as sacred. He is 
willing to risk his life in its defence, and is conscious 
that he gains protection while he gives it." 



PART V 

ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTTrUTION OF 
THE UNITED STATES 



CHAPTER XXXV 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, ADOPTED 
BY CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. 

A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary 
for one people to dissolve the political bands which have con- 
nected them with another, and to assume among the powers of 
the earth the separate and equal stations to which the laws of 
nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to 
the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare 
the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men aie 
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with 
certain inalienable rights; tliat among these are life, liberty, 
and the pursuit of happiness ; that, to secure these rights, 
governments are instituted among men, deriving their just 
powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any 
form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is tlie 
right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new 
government, laying its foundation on such principles, and or- 
ganizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most 
likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, 
will dictate that governments long established should not be 
changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all 
experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to 
suffer, while evils are suiferable, than to right themselves by 

237 



238 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when 
a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the 
same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absohite 
despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such a 
government, and to provide new guards for tlieir future security. 
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and 
such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their 
former systems of government. The history of the present 
king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and 
usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an 
absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be 
submitted to a candid world : — 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome, and 
necessary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate 
and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operations, 
till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he 
has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish 
the right of representation in the legislature ; a right inesti- 
mable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public 
records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance 
with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for oppos- 
ing, with manly firnniess, his invasions on the rights of the 
people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to 
cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, in- 
capable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large, 
for their exercise; the State remaining, in the mean time, ex- 
posed to all the dangers of invasions from without, and convul- 
sions within. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 239 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; 
for that purpose, obstructing the laws for the naturalization of 
foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration 
hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of 
lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing 
liis assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the ten- 
ure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their 
salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers, to harass our people, and eat out their sub- 
stance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
without the consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
superior to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our law\s ; 
givhig his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : — 

For quaitering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

For protecting them, by mock trial, from punishment for 
any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of 
these States ; 

For cutting off our trade wdth all parts of the world; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial 1>y 
j^ry; 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretendec^ 
offences ; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neigh- 
boring province, establishing tlierein an arbitrary government, 
and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an 
example and fit instrument for intro<lucing the same absolute 
rule into these Colonies ; 



240 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most vahiable 
laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our govern- 
ment ; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring them- 
selves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases what- 
soever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of 
his i^rotection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our 
towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mer- 
cenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, 
already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy 
scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally 
unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the exe- 
cutioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by 
their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the 
merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an 
undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for 
redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have 
been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose char- 
acter is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is 
unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British 
brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of at- 
tempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable juris- 
diction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances 
of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to 
their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usur- 



THP] DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 241 

pations, wliicli would inevitably interrupt our correctioii.s and 
correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of 
justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in 
the necessity, which denounces our separation, and hold tlieni, 
as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war; in peace, 
friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United Staiks 
OF America, in general congress assembled, appealing to the 
Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, 
do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of 
these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United 
Colonies are, and of right ought to be. Free and Indepenrlent 
States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British 
Crown, and that all political connection between them and the 
State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; 
and that, as Free and Independent States^ ^bey have full power 
to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish com- 
merce, and do all other acts and things w^hich Independent 
States may of right do. And for the support of this Declara- 
tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Pkovi- 
DENCE, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. 

John Hancock. 

New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island, etc. — Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis 
Lewis, Lewis IMorris. 

New Jersey. — Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. 



242 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Pennsylvania. — Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Ben- 
jamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clynier, James Smith, 
George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. 

Delaware. — Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas 
M'Kean. 

Maryland. — Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, 
Charles Carroll of CarroUton. 

Virginia. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas 
Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis 
Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. 

North Carolina. — William Hooper, Joseph Hevves, John 
Penn. 

South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Hayward, 
Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middletoii. 

Georgia. — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. 



ANALYSIS OF THE UNITED STATES CONSTI- 
TUTION 

(In this brief analysis there are indicated merel}^ 
the most important of the provisions of the Constitu- 
tion, with which every person ought to be familiar.) 

I. ORGANIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT 

1. The Legislative Department. The House oj 
Rejyresentatives. — Members chosen every two years 
by such electors in the states as have the right to vote 
for members of the state legislature. Representa- 
tives must be twenty-five years of age, and must have 
been citizens for seven years. They are apportioned 
among the states according to population. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT 243 

The Senate. — There are two senators from each 
state, elected for six years ])y the state electorate. 
One third of the members of the Senate are elected 
every two years. Senators must be thirty years of 
age, and must have been citizens for nine years. 

Each house is the judge of the election and qualifi- 
cations of its own members. A majority constitutes 
a quorum to do business. Each house determines the 
rules of its jDroceedings, and keeps a journal. At the 
desire of one fifth of the members present, the yeas 
and nays on any question shall be entered on the 
journal. 

2. The Executive Department. — The President 
of the United States is elected by electors chosen by 
the voters in each state. Each state is entitled to as 
many electors as it has senators and representatives 
in Congress. The President must be a native-born 
citizen of the United States over thirty-five years of 
age. The Vice-President is elected in a similar manner. 

3. The Judiciary Department. — The Constitu- 
tion provides for one Supreme Court. Inferior coui'ts 
may from time to time be established ])y Congress. 
The judges shall hold office dui'ing good behavior. 
They are appointed by the President with the consent 
of the Senate. 

II. THE POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOV- 
ERNMENT 

1. The Powers of Congress. — Congress may : — 
Lay and collect taxes; 



244 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Borrow money; 

Regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among 
the states; 

EstabUsh uniform laws on naturalization and on 
bankruptcy ; 

Coin money; 

Establish post-offices and post roads; 

Grant patents and copyrights; 

Define and punish offenses against international 
law; 

Declare war; 

Raise and support an army and a navy, and make 
rules for the land and naval forces; 

Provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
laws, and for the organization of the militia; 

Exercise exclusive legislative power over the federal 
district (of Columbia) and other land and property 
of the United States; 

Make all laws which shall be necessary and proper 
for carrying into execution these powers. 

Congress may also admit new states into the Union, 
and 

May make all needful rules and regulations respect- 
» ing the territories or other property belonging to the 
United States. 

All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives, but the Senate may pro- 
pose amendments. 

The House of Representatives further has the 
power to impeach or accuse any high official. The 



POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 245 

Senate shall try such impeachments. When the Presi- 
dent of the United States is tried, tlie Chief Justice 
shall preside. The Senate further has the power to 
give or withhold its consent to all treaties and appoint- 
ments made by the President. 

2. ^ The Executive. — The President is commander- 
in-chief of the army and navy. 

He may require the opinion of tlie principal officer 
in each of the executive departments. (These officers 
form the President's cabinet.) 

He may grant pardons for offenses against the 
United States. 

He shall from time to time give the Congress infor- 
mation on the state of the Union (in his messages), 
and recommend measures of legislation. 

He has the right to convene the houses of Congress 
in executive session. 

He receives ambassadors and other foreign ministei-s. 
He shall take care that the laws are faithfully 
executed. 

By and with the consent of the Senate, the Presi- 
dent makes treaties with foreign nations and appoints 
the higher public officials in the federal service. 

3. The Federal Courts. — The judicial power of 
the United States extends over the following matters: 
All cases arising under the Constitution, the laws 
of the United States, and treaties; 

Cases affecting ambassadors and other public minis- 
ters and consuls; 

.Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; 



246 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Controversies between two or more states, between 
a state and citizens of another state, and between 
citizens of different states; 

Cases in which foreigners are a party. 

By the Eleventh Amendment, it is provided that 
the judicial power of the United States shall not ex- 
tend to a suit prosecuted against a state by a citizen 
of another state or by a foreigner. 

In all criminal trials there shall be a jury, and the 
trials shall be held in the state where the crime has 
been committed. 

III. POWERS WHICH ARE DENIED TO THE 
UNITED STATES 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not 
be suspended, except in cases of rebellion or invasion. 

No law shall be passed to punish a person for an 
action which was not a crime at the time when it was 
committed. Such a law would be called an ex post 
facto law. 

Head taxes or other direct taxes shall not be laid 
unless in proportion to the population. 

There shall be no tax on articles exported from any 
state. 

No preference shall be given to the ports of one 
state over those of another, in the matter of commercial 
regulations. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in 
consequence of appropriations granted by law. 

No title of nobility shall be granted. 



POWERS WHICH ARE DENIED TO THE STATES 247 

The powers of the federal government are also 
limited by the Bill of Rights in the amendments, which 
see below. 

IV. POWERS WHICH ARE DENIED TO THE 
STATES 

States shall not enter into any treaty, alliance, or 
confederation. 

They shall not coin money or issue bills of credit. 

They shall not make anything but gold and silver 
coin legal tender for the payment of debts. 

They shall not pass Siuf ex post facto law or any law 
by which the obligation of existing contracts is im- 
paired. 

They shall not grant any title of nobility. 

States shall not keep troops or ships of war in time 
of peace. 

They shall not lay any duty on the tonnage of 
vessels. 

The United States guarantees to every state in the 
Union a republican form of government. A state 
could not, therefore, under the Constitution, set up a 
monarchical government. 

The United States also shall protect the states 
against domestic violence, on application of the legis- 
lature or of the executive of the state. 

V. POWER OF AMENDMENT 

The Constitution of the United States may be 
amended in the following manner; — 



248 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Amendments shall be proposed in either of the 
following ways: First, two thirds of both houses of 
Congress may propose amendments; second, on the 
application of the legislatures of two thirds of the 
states, a national convention for proposing amend- 
ments shall be called. 

The amendments shall be ratified or adopted in 
either of the following ways : First, by the legislatures 
of three fourths of the several states; second, by con- 
ventions in three fourths of the states. Congress may 
determine which mode of ratification shall be used. 

It is specially provided that no state shall, without 
its consent, be deprived of its equal representation in 
the Senate. 

VI. THE BILL OF RIGHTS 

(Contained in the amendments to the Constitution.) 

Amendments. — I. Congress shall make no law es- 
tablishing a religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 
thereof; it shall not abridge the freedom of speech or 
of the press, or of the right of the people peaceably to 
assemble and to petition the government. 

II. The right of the people to keep and bear arms 
shall not be infringed. 

III. No soldiers shall in time of jDeace be quartered 
in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in 
time of war except under law. 

IV. The homes of the people shall not be searched, 
except upon warrants sworn to and describing par- 
ticularly the place to be searched and the person or 
things to be seized. 



THE BILL OF lUCIHTS 249 

V. In the trial of persons for crinie, tlu* due proeess 
of law shall be observed. 

No person shall twice be tried for the same offense. 

No person shall be compelled in a criminal case to be 
a witness against himself. 

Private property shall not ])e taken for i^ublic use 
without just compensation. 

The rights of a criminal to an impartial trial are 
further protected by Article VI. 

VII. In suits at common law (civil cases) where 
the amount involved shall exceed $20, the right of 
trial by jury shall be preserved. 

VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor 
excessive fines be imposed, nor cruel and unusual 
punishments inflicted. 

X. The powers not delegated to the United States 
by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, 
are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. 

XIII. (Adopted 1865.) Neither slavery nor invol- 
untary servitude shall exist except as a punislmient 
for crime. 

XIV. No state shall make or enforce a law which 
shall abridge the rights or immunities of citizens of 
the United States, nor shall it deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

XV. The right of the citizens of the United States 
to vote shall not be denied on account of race, color, 
or previous condition of servitude. 

XVI. Congress shall have pow(>r to lay and collect 
taxes on incomes. 



250 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

XVII . The Senate of the United States shall be com- 
posed of two senators from each state elected by the 
people thereof for six years, and each senator shall 
have one vote. In order to vote for a senator, a voter 
must be qualified to vote for members of the state 
legislature. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

NOTE ON BOYS' REPUBLICS, CONVENTIONS, ETC. 

Many of the operations and activities of govern- 
ment may be undertaken by young students, either as 
a part of their recreation, or in a more serious spirit. 
Under all circumstances, we should remember that 
politics in itself is a very important matter, and strive 
to prepare ourselves for future duties of citizenship by 
learning to know the actual methods of government. 

Thus it is interesting to organize a state or national 
convention. We would begin by electing a chairman, 
secretary, and other officials, having divided up the 
students into delegations from various districts or 
states. After his election, the permanent chairman 
would make a speech, dealing with the issues in the 
state or nation. Thereupon would follow the adop- 
tion of a platform and the placing in nomination of 
various candidates for the offices to be filled. After 
the nominations have been made, voting begins, which 
continues until one of the candidates has received a 
simple majority or a two thirds vote of all the dele- 
gates as may be agreed upon beforehand. In organiz- 
ing a convention of this kind, the organizations of the 
national convention of both the Republican and Demo- 

251 



252 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

cratic parties, as well as of the state conventions, 
should be studied. 

Again, we may organize a legislature, electing a 
speaker, clerk, and sergeant-at-arms. When the house 
is in session, resolutions may be offered, debated, and 
voted upon, and other public business may be trans- 
acted, according to the rules of parliamentary law. 
Every American citizen ought to have enough training 
in the manner of conducting a public meeting not to 
feel out of place in presiding on such an occasion. 
He should know when and how to present any mo- 
tion he desires to make. Proposed legislation may be 
drawn up in the form of bills, introduced in the house, 
referred to a committee, and, after discussion, reported 
back for debate in the main body. A legislative body 
should be provided with a set of rules, regulating its 
procedure, in addition to the general rules of parlia- 
mentary law, which may be found in such manuals as 
that of Roberts or Gushing. 

It would also be possible for us to organize a com- 
plete republic or community. This could be brought 
about in a number of ways. In some schools, the 
government of the school has been turned over to the 
students themselves, organized as a public body. They 
elect their officials, pass their rules and regulations/ 
and enforce the latter through official action. • 

Going to a greater length, successful Boys' Repub- 
lics have been organized in many places. They might 
take a form somewhat Tike the following: During 
summer vacation, sixty or eighty boys might group 
themselves together in a community. They might rent 



BOYS' REPUBLICS, CONVENTIONS, ETC. 258 

the use of eight or ten acres of land somewhere near 
town. This land would be sublet to members of the 
community at a fixed price. Each landholder would 
then devote himself to the cultivation of such crops of 
vegetables as seem to promise the largest returns. The 
matters of common interest would be discussed and 
determined by a council of seven or nine members, 
while at the head of the community would stand the 
mayor. These officials would be elected by vote of 
all members. The community would further have a 
small volunteer police force for the purpose of main- 
taining order, and a judge for the decision of disputes. 
If either party desired, a jury of six would be em- 
panelled to try the case. Other officers would be the 
city clerk, the treasurer, the commissioner of streets, and 
the water commissioner. Additional offices might be- 
come necessary, according to the special circumstances 
of the community. It might even be possible for a 
community of this kind to acquire the land upon which 
they do their work. They would form a corporation 
owning the land in common. In that case, they might 
appoint some older person, like a banker or teacher, 
their trustee, in whose name the property might be 
held, and who would advise with their officers in mat- 
ters of business. 

All such enterprises as the one here described will 
teach the student the meaning of cooperation in a 
commonwealth; that in public action \ve must adjust 
ourselves to the community in which we live; that 
we must assist it with our efforts and enersjies, but 
must not insist always upon carrying through our own 



254 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

will. If the reasons which we give are heard and 
weighed by our associates, that is all we can desire. 
For training in common action, and in the ability to 
discuss and reason upon public questions, work of this 
kind would be invaluable. 



INDEX 



Agriculture, 93, 98. 
Ambassadors, 114. 
Americau ideals, 211. 
Arlingtou, 178. 
Army and navy, 118-125. 
Army service, 28. 
Arrest of criminals, 37. 

unjust, 46. 
Asylums, G7. 
Attorney -General, 193 

Bail, 40. 
Ballot, the, 16. 

Australian, 17. 

by machine, 18. 

voting by, 16. 
Bill of Rights, 248-250. 
Bills, 200. 
Boys' Republics, 251-254. 

Cabinet, the, 192-197. 
Campaigns, 20-21. 
Candidates, 13-15. 
Capitol, the national, 176. 
Castles, 33-36. 
Change of venue, 41. 
Charities, public, 65-70. 

other, 69. 
Cities, '^, 77, 153-161. 

American, 155. 

beautified, 157. 

charter, 159. 

cosmopolitan, 156. 

council, 160. 

Italian, 34, 154. 

mayor of, 160. 

public works in, 80-83. 

w hat they are, 34, 152. 



Citizens, army service, 28. 

duties of, 25-29. 

jury service, 26. 

office holding, 25. 

payment of taxes, 29. 

protection of, 48. 
Civil Service, 195. 
Coin, see Money. 
Commerce, 139. 
Commissions, 83. 
Congress, the, 198-201. 

powers and duties, 138, 24.3-245- 
Congressmen, 199. 
Constitution, the, 242-249. 
Consuls, 115. 
Conventions, 13. 
County, the, 163-165. 

what it is, 163. 
County government, 163. 
County officers, 164. 
Courts, federal, 203-205. 

State, 

Supreme, 27, 204. 
Criminals, 35-47. 

arrest of, 37. 

defense of, 40^3. 

extradition of, 38. 

protection against, 35. 

punishment of, 44. 

trial of, 39. 

unjust arrest, 46. 



Debt, imprisonment for, 53. 
Declaration of Independence, 237- 

242. 
Defendant, 52. 
Democracy, 8. 
direct, 9. 
255 



256 



INDEX 



Diplomats, 114. 
Direct primaries, 14. 

Education, 55-64. 

Elections, 16-24. 

Equality of opportunity, 225-227. 

Evidence, of guilt, 43. 

circumstantial, 43. 
Extradition, 38. 



Fees, 127. 

Feudal castle, a, 35. 
Feudal times, 33. 
Foreign Affairs, 111-117. 

consuls, 115. 

diplomats, 114. 

our relations to other nations, 
111. 

passports, 113. 

promotion of commerce. 111. 

the State Department, 115. 

treaties, 117. 
Forests, 90-97. 

destruction of, 91. 

national parks, 95. 

reserves, 92. 

State reservations, 95. 

value of, 90. 
Franchises, public, 81. 

Government, the, 3-54. 

Executive Department, 243. 

Judiciary Department, 243. 

in early times, 3. 

in mocTern times, 4. 

Legislative Department, 242. 

national, 176-182. 

organization of, 242. 

powers of federal, 243. 

representative, 9. 

the citizen's part in, 8-12. 

the real, 5. 

what it does, 31. 
Governor, the, 169. 



Habeas corpus, 46. 

Hague Court, the, 207. 

Health, 48-49. 

Highways, 71-79. 

Homestead Act, 98. 

Hospitality, 213. 

Hospitals, 67. 

House of Representatives, 199, 242 

International unions, 207-209. 
Inventions, 60. 
Irrigation, 94. 

Jury, the, 42. 
Jury service, 26. 

Lands, public. See Forests. 
Laws, action at, to be avoided, 52 

civil and criminal, 137. 

how made, 140. 

majesty of, 27. 

making of, 136. 

pure food, 139. 
Legislation, 136-143. 
Legislatures. See State. 
Liberty, 220-224. 
Libraries, public, 61-64. 
Life-saving service, 87. 
Lighthouses, 86-87. 

Mails, 105-108. 

classes of, 108. 

postmasters, 105. 

railway service, 107. 

transmission of, 105. 
Maintaining order, 33-47. 
Mayor. See Cities. 
Militia, 121. 

Mint, the United States, 101. 
Money, 101-104. 

a substitute for coin, 103. 

medium of exchange, 101. 
Money, national unit, 101. 
Money orders, 109. 
Mount Vernon, 181. 



INDEX 



257 



National capital, 176. 
National Goverument. See 

eminent. 
National parks, 95-97. 
Natural resources, 84. 
Naval Academy, 124. 
Navy, 122-125. 
Nominations, 13-15. 

Officials, oversight of, 23. 
Order, maintaining, 33-47. 

Parks, 76, 95. 

Patriotism, 228-234. 
Perso7ial rights, 50. 
Plaintiff, 52. 
Playgrounds, 76, 78. 
Political campaigns, 20. 
Political parties, 13. 
Postal Union, 208. 
Postmaster-General, 194. 
Postmasters, 105. 
President, the, 183-191, 245. 

appointing officers, 189. 

daily work, 183. 

election of, 186. 

importance of office, 183. 

inauguration of, 187. 

making treaties, 189. 

messages, 190. 

power of, 188. 

salary of, 26. 

succession, 190. 

veto power, 190. 
Primaries, 13. 

direct, 14. 
Property, protection of, 48. 
Protection, 3;^7. 

against criminals, 35. 

in feudal times, 33. 

of health, 48-49. 

of the citizens, 48-54. 
Public lands, 98-99. 
Public works, 80-83. 



Gov- 



Quarantine, 49. 

Rights, personal, 80. 

our neighbors, 61. 

our rights, 51. 
Roads, 71. 

country, 74. 

Schools, advanced, 58. 

common, 55-57. 
Secretaries, Attorney-General, 193. 

of Agriculture, 194. 

of Commerce, 195. 

of State, 192. 

of the Interior, 194. 

of the Navy, 194. 

of the Treasury, 193. 

of War, 193. 

Postmaster-General, 194. 
Selectmen, 9. 
Senate, the, 198, 243. 
Smuggling, 128. 
Speaker, the, 199. 
State, the, 166-175. 

Constitution of, 168. 

equality of, 168. 

the governor of, 169. 
State commissions, 171. 
State department, the, 115-117. 
State government, importance of, 

166. 
State insignia, 167. 
State legislatures, 172. 
State officers, 171. 
State reservations, 95. 
States, powers denied to, 247- 
Streets, 75. 

Taxation, 126. 

assessment of, 134. 

city taxes, 133. 
Taxation, direct, 130. 

forms of, 129. 

for purposes of government, 126 
I indirect, 127. 



258 



INDEX 



Taxation, oppressive, 126. 
Taxes, payment of, 29. 
Tickets, split, 18. 
Torts, 50. 

Town and village, 147-151. 
Town-meeting, 8, 147. 
Township government, 149. 
Transportation, 85. 
Treaties, 117. 

United States, powers denied to, 

246. 
United States Treasury, 132. 
Utilities, public, 83, 



Veto power, 142. 

Vice-President, 200. 

Village, government, 150. See 

Town and village. 
Voting, 10. 

Australian, 16, 17. 

changes in constitution, 22. 

intelligent, 10. 

process of, 19. 
Voting machines, 18. 

Wealth, development of public, 

84-89. 
White House, the, 178-179. 



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